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Existing knowledge about the effect of neutron irradiation on the mechanical properties of reac-tor pressure vessel steels under reactor service conditions relies to a large extent on accelerated irradiations realized by exposing steel samples to a higher neutron flux. A deep understanding of flux effects is, therefore, vital for gaining service-relevant insight on the mechanical property degradation. Existing studies on flux effects often suffer from incomplete descriptions of the ir-radiation-induced microstructure. Our study aims at giving a detailed picture of irradia-tion-induced nanofeatures by applying complementary methods using atom probe tomography, positron annihilation, small-angle neutron scattering and transmission electron microscopy. The characteristics of the irradiation-induced nanofeatures and the dominant factors responsible for the observed increase of Vickers hardness are identified. The results rationalize why pronounced flux effects on the nanofeatures, in particular on solute atom clusters, only give rise to small or moderate flux effects on hardening.

The effect of neutron flux on the irradiation-induced microstructure and mechanical behaviour is one of the still open issues for the scientific community both for RPV steels and internals. In the case of RPV steels, more and statistically more reliable microstructural data are needed, in particular for low-Cu RPV steels irradiated up to high fluence. Within SOTERIA, suitable pairs of low-Cu RPV steels irradiated at different flux up to the same levels of fluence were identified. This deliverable D2.1 reports about the effect of neutron flux on the neutron-irradiation-induced microstructure of RPV base and weld materials. The main methods applied are small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), positron lifetime spectroscopy (PAS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atom probe tomography (APT). Using these methods, a number of different kinds of irradiation-induced nanofeatures were detected. These comprise dislocation loops, vacancies, sub-nm vacancy clusters, solute atom clusters and segregated dislocations. Loops are insufficient in number density and vacancy clusters are too small to contribute significantly to the irradiation-induced changes of the mechanical properties, but play a role in the overall evolution of the irradiated microstructures. Solute atom clusters are decisive for irradiation hardening. SANS and APT indicate a common trend that an increasing flux gives rise to smaller sizes and higher number densities of solute atom clusters. APT additionally shows that the clusters are more dilute at higher flux. The counteracting effects of flux on size and number density of solute atom clusters partly compensate each other and, therefore, rationalize the relative insensitivity of the mechanical properties to the neutron flux.

Flux is an important variable of RPV steel embrittlement because of several reasons including the consideration of surveillance samples vs. RPV wall material, MTR vs. PWR/BWR irradiations and ions as a neutron substitute in the lab. The approach relies on the reasonable assumption that the flux effect on the mechanical properties is mediated by the flux-dependent evolutiooon of the irradiation-induced nanofeatures. In order to separate flux effects from the effect of the neutron fluence, pairs of samples of one and the same material irradiated at as different as possible flux up to about the same fluence are selected. These pairs of samples were fully characterized with respect to both mechanical property changes and the characteristics of irradiation-induced solute clusters. The results indicate that there is a pronounced effect of flux on cluster size, that there are minor flux effects on number density, volume fraction and composition of clusters and that SANS and APT provide consistent results on size and number density of clusters. The classical dispersed-barrier hardening model combined with deterministic growth and irradiation-enhanced diffusion describes the flux effect on the mechanical properties well.

LONGLIFE (“Treatment of long term irradiation embrittlement effects in RPV safety assessment”) was a collaborative project of the 7th Framework Programme of EURATOM under the umbrella of NULIFE/NUGENIA, aiming at an improved understanding of irradiation effects in reactor pressure vessel steels under conditions representative of long term operation. The LONGLIFE project was completed by end of January 2014. The paper gives an overview of the main project results and their implications for future research, as discussed at the final project workshop. The microstructural database for neutron-irradiated RPV steels was extended considerably and existing gaps on mechanical property data were closed. Indications of late blooming effects (LBE) were found in some cases, but clear criteria for the occurrence/exclusion in terms of irradiation conditions and chemical composition have still to be developed. The commonly accepted trend, that low flux and low irradiation temperature promotes LBE, is supported. A significant flux effect on the size of defect clusters was observed in two high Cu weld materials, while the changes of mechanical properties are not affected by the neutron flux. The database requires completion in particular for low-Cu RPV steels. The shift of reference temperature T0 over the thickness location of a VVER-440 welding seam does not follow the prediction Russian code, because of the strong variation of the intrinsic weld bead structure. Therefore, the effect of the initial microstructure and of the heterogeneity on the radiation behaviour has to be addressed in future works. Existing embrittlement trend curves models were applied to the LONGLIFE data base. None of the trend curves could predict the behaviour of the entirety of the LONGLIFE materials sufficiently. A guideline for monitoring radiation embrittlement during life extension periods was developed.

This paper describes key open issues which are being debated nowadays by experts in the field, and for which clarification is essential for a safe operation of the nuclear power plants during life extension. Notably: late blooming effects in low Cu steels; effects of Cu, Ni, Mn, and P on the irradiated microstructure and on hardening and embrittlement; use of material test reactor data for assessment in power reactors (including flux and spectrum effects); Master Curve versus Unified Curve and fracture toughness behavior of highly irradiated material; embrittlement in RPV zones out of the traditional beltline (“the expanding beltline”); embrittlement trend curves at high neutron fluence, where data are scarce; re-embrittlement after annealing.

The increasing age of the European NPPs and envisaged lifetime extensions up to 80 years require an improved understanding of RPV irradiation embrittlement effects connected with long term operation (LTO). Phenomena which might become important at high neutron fluences (such as late blooming effects and flux effects) must be considered adequately in the safety assessments. Therefore the project LONGLIFE was initiated within the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission. The project aims at: i) improved knowledge on LTO phenomena relevant for European reactors; ii) assessment of prediction tools, codes, standards and surveillance guidelines. In the paper, we give an overview of the project structure and the related tasks. Furthermore we present two examples for the experimental evidence of LTO relevant phenomena: the first example is related to the flux dependence of defect cluster formation in a neutron irradiated weld material. We have found that the size of the irradiation induced defects exhibits a flux effect whereas the mechanical properties are almost independent of the flux. The second example refers to the acceleration of irradiation hardening after exceeding a threshold fluence. This effect was observed by means of both small angle neutron scattering (SANS) and tensile testing for low Cu RPV steels irradiated at a temperature of 255°C. These examples demonstrate that LTO irradiation effects have to be investigated in more detail to guarantee the applicability of the embrittlement surveillance guidelines beyond 40 years of operation.

A flux effect on the formation of irradiation-induced clusters in reactor presure vessel (RPV) steels and weld materials is usually assumed. However, it is not easy to quantify this effect because changes of neutron flux are frequently mixed with changes of fluence. This investigation is focused on the influence of neutron flux on the formation of irradiation-induced clusters at a fixed fluence. Small-angle neutron scattering experiments were performed for a neutron irradiated RPV weld material containing 0.22wt% Cu. Clearly distinguishable scattering curves were observed for the irradiated conditions. Data analysis shows that the peak radius of the cluster size distribution of the material irradiated at higher neutron flux of 2.1x10E12 cm^-2s^-1 (E > 1 MeV) is 0.85 nm and the peak radius for the material irradiated at a 35 times lower flux is 1.60 nm. The cluster volume fraction was found to be independent of flux. The effect of flux on the cluster size is surprisingly strong and indicates that cluster growth must have occurred during the low flux irradiation.

A flux effect on the formation of irradiation-induced clusters in reactor presure vessel (RPV) steels and weld materials is usually assumed. However, it is not easy to quantify this effect because changes of neutron flux are frequently mixed with changes of fluence. This investigation is focused on the influence of neutron flux on the formation of irradiation-induced clusters at a fixed fluence. Small-angle neutron scattering experiments were performed for a neutron irradiated RPV weld material containing 0.22wt% Cu. Clearly distinguishable scattering curves were observed for the irradiated conditions. Data analysis shows that the peak radius of the cluster size distribution of the material irradiated at higher neutron flux of 2.1x10E12 cm^-2s^-1 (E > 1 MeV) is 0.85 nm and the peak radius for the material irradiated at a 35 times lower flux is 1.60 nm. The cluster volume fraction was found to be independent of flux. The effect of flux on the cluster size is surprisingly strong and indicates that cluster growth must have occurred during the low flux irradiation.

The effect of flux and Ar pretreatment during ion beam nitriding of austenitic stainless steel is investigated. The ion energy and temperature were 1.2 keV and 400°C, respectively, the ion current densities were 0.5, 0.67, and 0.83 mA∙cm-2. The nitrogen distribution profiles were measured using nuclear reaction analysis. The obtained nitrogen distribution profiles were analyzed by the means of the nitrided layer thickness evolution due to sputtering and diffusion and the model of trapping-detrapping. Both approaches could fit well the experimental results, however different diffusion coefficients have to be assumed for each current density. In addition, the diffusion coefficients are higher for higher current densities. On the other hand, it is shown that the pretreatment with Ar ion beam at nitriding temperatures produces only a thermal effect without any other influence on the following nitrogen diffusion. The results are discussed in relation with surface and temperature effects and atomic transport mechanisms.