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SWEET (Sugars Will Eventually be Exported Transporter) genes play essential roles in various biological processes, including phloem loading, sugar efflux, plant development and stress response. In this study, a total of 33 RsSWEET gene members were identified in the radish genome. They could be divided into four subfamilies and are distributed on eight radish chromosomes. Cis-acting regulatory element analysis indicated that these RsSWEET genes were potentially involved in the radish growth and development and stress response process, including circadian control and light response and responses to numerous stresses, including low-temperature and drought stress. Transcriptome data analysis revealed that a number of RsSWEET genes exhibited specific expression patterns in different tissues and developmental stages of radish. Moreover, several RsSWEET genes (e.g., RsSWEET2a, RsSWEET3a, RsSWEET16b and RsSWEET17) showed differential expression profiles under various abiotic stresses, including cold, heat, salt, Cd and Pb stress. Remarkably, the RsSWEET17 was specifically expressed in the cambium of radish. RsSWEET17 was heterologously expressed in yeast strain EBY.VW4000, which suggested that it has the ability to transport sugar. Notably, RsSWEET17-overexpressing Arabidopsis plants exhibited excessive root length, greater fresh weight and higher soluble sugar content (SSC) accumulation compared with wild-type (WT) plants, indicating that RsSWEET17 might positively regulate radish taproot development by strategically manipulating sugar accumulation. Collectively, these results clarify the molecular mechanisms underlying RsSWEET-mediated sugar accumulation and root growth and development in radish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CLAVATA3/EMBRYO SURROUNDING REGION-related (CLE) peptides are a class of small molecules involved in plant growth and development. Although radish (Raphanus sativus) is an important root vegetable crop worldwide, the functions of CLE peptides in its taproot formation remain elusive. Here, a total of 48 RsCLE genes were identified from the radish genome. RNA in situ hybridization showed that RsCLE22a gene was highly expressed in the vascular cambium. Overexpression of RsCLE22a inhibited root growth by impairing stem cell proliferation in Arabidopsis, and radish plants with exogenous supplementation of RsCLE22 peptide (CLE22p) showed a similar phenotype. The vascular cambial activity was increased in RsCLE22a -silenced plants. Transcriptome analysis revealed that CLE22p altered the expression of several genes involved in meristem development and hormone signal transduction in radish. Immunolocalization results showed that CLE22p increased auxin accumulation in vascular cambium. Yeast one-hybrid and dual-luciferase assays showed that the WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX 4 (RsWOX4) binds to RsCLE22a promoter and activates its transcription. The expression level of RsWOX4 was related to vascular cambial activity and was regulated by auxin. Furthermore, a RsCLE22a–RsWOX4 module is proposed to regulate taproot vascular cambium activity through an auxin signaling-related pathway in radish. These findings provide novel insights into the regulation of root growth in a horticultural crop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In most higher plants, sucrose is the significant form of carbohydrate for long-distance transportation. Sucrose transporters/sucrose carriers (SUTs/SUCs) are involved in the loading and unloading of sucrose in phloem and play an important role in the growth and development of plants. In this study, 12 RsSUC genes were first identified from the radish genome, and their phylogenetic relationships, gene structure, and conserved motifs were further analyzed. RT-qPCR results indicated that RsSUC genes exhibited various expression patterns in different tissues and development stages of the radish. Overexpression of RsSUC1b in Arabidopsis significantly improved the uptake efficiency of exogenous sucrose, and promoted leaves and lateral root growth. In addition, the transgenic plants flowered significantly earlier than wild-type (WT) plants, and the soluble sugar contents (SSCs) including sucrose, glucose, and fructose in the mature leaves and pods were increased. It could be inferred that RsSUC1b is a plasma membrane sucrose transporter and plays a vital role in sucrose transportation and sugar accumulation during plant growth and development. These findings provided novel insights into the biological function of RsSUC genes and facilitate dissecting the molecular mechanism underlying sugar transport during radish development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Radish is a typical self-incompatible crop. The rapid and accurate identification of S haplotypes can circumvent the blindness of the hybrid combination process, which is critical in radish heterosis utilization and the breeding of new varieties. In this study, based on the gene sequence which encodes the S-locus receptor kinase (SRK) of radish, and the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis, the S haplotypes were identified among 79 cultivated radish genotypes. The PCR results indicated that 79 radish genotypes could be divided into 48 Class I, 13 Class II, and 17 Class I/II S haplotypes. Sequence alignment confirmed that the Class I materials contained 19 S haplotypes, of which three haplotypes ('NAU-S53', 'NAU-S54' and 'NAU-S55') were identified for the first time in radish. After digestion using the Hinf I restriction endonuclease, the SRK domain of DNA fragments of different genotypes showed high polymorphism. Homozygous materials S haplotypes could be quickly distinguished by the differences in the digested bands. Molecular identification of the S haplotype was highly consistent with the field pollination and pollen tube germination results. These results would provide an important approach for the rapid identification of radish S haplotypes and the efficient utilization of self-incompatibility in heterosis breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Taproot is the main edible organ and ultimately determines radish yield and quality. However, the precise molecular mechanism underlying taproot thickening awaits further investigation in radish. Here, RNA-seq was performed to identify critical genes involved in radish taproot thickening from three advanced inbred lines with different root size. Results: A total of 2606 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were shared between 'NAU-DY' (large acicular) and 'NAU-YB' (medium obovate), which were significantly enriched in 'phenylpropanoid biosynthesis', 'glucosinolate biosynthesis', and 'starch and sucrose metabolism' pathway. Meanwhile, a total of 16 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) were shared between 'NAU-DY' and 'NAU-YH' (small circular), whereas 12 miRNAs exhibited specific differential expression in 'NAU-DY'. Association analysis indicated that miR393a-bHLH77, miR167c-ARF8, and miR5658-APL might be key factors to biological phenomenon of taproot type variation, and a putative regulatory model of taproot thickening and development was proposed. Furthermore, several critical genes including SUS1, EXPB3, and CDC5 were characterized and profiled by RT-qPCR analysis. Conclusion: This integrated study on the transcriptional and post-transcriptional profiles could provide new insights into comprehensive understanding of the molecular regulatory mechanism underlying taproot thickening in root vegetable crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: High‐density genetic map is a valuable tool for exploring novel genomic information, quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping and gene discovery of economically agronomic traits in plant species. However, high‐resolution genetic map applied to tag QTLs associated with important traits and to investigate genomic features underlying recombination landscape in radish (Raphanus sativus) remains largely unexplored. In this study, an ultra‐high‐density genetic map with 378 738 SNPs covering 1306.8 cM in nine radish linkage groups (LGs) was developed by a whole‐genome sequencing‐based approach. A total of 18 QTLs for 11 horticulture traits were detected. The map‐based cloning data indicated that the R2R3‐MYB transcription factor RsMYB90 was a crucial candidate gene determining the taproot skin colour. Comparative genomics analysis among radish, Brassica rapa and B. oleracea genome revealed several genomic rearrangements existed in the radish genome. The highly uneven distribution of recombination was observed across the nine radish chromosomes. Totally, 504 recombination hot regions (RHRs) were enriched near gene promoters and terminators. The recombination rate in RHRs was positively correlated with the density of SNPs and gene, and GC content, respectively. Functional annotation indicated that genes within RHRs were mainly involved in metabolic process and binding. Three QTLs for three traits were found in the RHRs. The results provide novel insights into the radish genome evolution and recombination landscape, and facilitate the development of effective strategies for molecular breeding by targeting and dissecting important traits in radish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Abiotic stresses due to climate change pose a great threat to crop production. Heat shock transcription factors (HSFs) are vital regulators that play key roles in protecting plants against various abiotic stresses. Therefore, the identification and characterization of HSFs is imperative to dissect the mechanism responsible for plant stress responses. Although the HSF gene family has been extensively studied in several plant species, its characterization, evolutionary history and expression patterns in the radish (Raphanus sativus L.) remain limited. Results: In this study, 33 RsHSF genes were obtained from the radish genome, which were classified into three main groups based on HSF protein domain structure. Chromosomal localization analysis revealed that 28 of 33 RsHSF genes were located on nine chromosomes, and 10 duplicated RsHSF genes were grouped into eight gene pairs by whole genome duplication (WGD). Moreover, there were 23 or 9 pairs of orthologous HSFs were identified between radish and Arabidopsis or rice, respectively. Comparative analysis revealed a close relationship among radish, Chinese cabbage and Arabidopsis. RNA-seq data showed that eight RsHSF genes including RsHSF-03, were highly expressed in the leaf, root, cortex, cambium and xylem, indicating that these genes might be involved in plant growth and development. Further, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) indicated that the expression patterns of 12 RsHSF genes varied upon exposure to different abiotic stresses including heat, salt, and heavy metals. These results indicated that the RsHSFs may be involved in abiotic stress response. Conclusions: These results could provide fundamental insights into the characteristics and evolution of the HSF family and facilitate further dissection of the molecular mechanism responsible for radish abiotic stress responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microsporogenesis is an indispensable period for investigating microspore development and cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) occurrence. Radish CMS line plays a critical role in elite F hybrid seed production and heterosis utilization. However, the molecular mechanisms of microspore development and CMS occurrence have not been thoroughly uncovered in radish. In this study, a comparative analysis of radish floral buds from a CMS line (NAU-WA) and its maintainer (NAU-WB) was conducted using next generation sequencing (NGS) technology. Digital gene expression (DGE) profiling revealed that 3504 genes were significantly differentially expressed between NAU-WA and NAU-WB library, among which 1910 were upregulated and 1594 were downregulated. Gene ontology (GO) analysis showed that these differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were mainly enriched in extracellular region, catalytic activity, and response to stimulus. KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that the DEGs were predominantly associated with flavonoid biosynthesis, glycolysis, and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis showed that the expression profiles of 13 randomly selected DEGs were in high agreement with results from Illumina sequencing. Several candidate genes encoding ATP synthase, auxin response factor (ARF), transcription factors (TFs), chalcone synthase (CHS), and male sterility (MS) were responsible for microsporogenesis. Furthermore, a schematic diagram for functional interaction of DEGs from NAU-WA vs. NAU-WB library in radish plants was proposed. These results could provide new information on the dissection of the molecular mechanisms underlying microspore development and CMS occurrence in radish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The CPA (cation proton antiporter) family plays an essential role during plant stress tolerance by regulating ionic and pH homeostasis of the cell. Radish fleshy roots are susceptible to abiotic stress during growth and development, especially salt stress. To date, CPA family genes have not yet been identified in radish and the biological functions remain unclear. In this study, 60 CPA candidate genes in radish were identified on the whole genome level, which were divided into three subfamilies including the Na+/H+ exchanger (NHX), K+ efflux antiporter (KEA), and cation/H+ exchanger (CHX) families. In total, 58 of the 60 RsCPA genes were localized to the nine chromosomes. RNA-seq. data showed that 60 RsCPA genes had various expression levels in the leaves, roots, cortex, cambium, and xylem at different development stages, as well as under different abiotic stresses. RT–qPCR analysis indicated that all nine RsNHXs genes showed up regulated trends after 250 mM NaCl exposure at 3, 6, 12, and 24h. The RsCPA31 (RsNHX1) gene, which might be the most important members of the RsNHX subfamily, exhibited obvious increased expression levels during 24h salt stress treatment. Heterologous over-and inhibited-expression of RsNHX1 in Arabidopsis showed that RsNHX1 had a positive function in salt tolerance. Furthermore, a turnip yellow mosaic virus (TYMV)-induced gene silence (VIGS) system was firstly used to functionally characterize the candidate gene in radish, which showed that plant with the silence of endogenous RsNHX1 was more susceptible to the salt stress. According to our results we provide insights into the complexity of the RsCPA gene family and a valuable resource to explore the potential functions of RsCPA genes in radish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The identified 65 Aux/IAA genes show an uneven chromosomal distribution in radish. • Six Aux/IAA genes exhibit specifically high expression level in radish root tissues. • RsIAA33 gene might involve in promoting taproot thickening and development in radish. Auxin/indole–3–acetic acid (Aux/IAA) genes encode short lived nuclear proteins that cooperated with auxin or auxin response factor (ARF), which are involved in plant growth and developmental processes. However, it's still ambiguous how the Aux/IAA genes regulate the process governing taproot thickening in radish. Herein, 65 Aux/IAA genes were identified from the radish genome. Gene duplication analysis showed that two pairs of tandem duplication and 17 (27%) segmental duplication events were identified among Aux/IAA family genes in radish. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that most of Aux/IAA genes (52/65) exhibited differential expression pattern in different root tissues, and six root–specific genes were highly expressed in root cortex, cambium, xylem, and root tip in radish. RT–qPCR analysis showed that the expression level of RsIAA33 was the highest at cortex splitting stage (CSS), and early expanding stage (ES). Furthermore, amiRNA–mediated gene silencing of RsIAA33 indicated that it could inhibit the reproductive growth, thus promoting taproot thickening and development. These results would provide valuable information for elucidating the molecular function of Aux/IAA genes involved in taproot thickening in radish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]