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South Africa has an urgent need for qualified technical and mechanical people. Technical disciplines are encouraged in public schools to fulfil this requirement. Teachers are also in an environment that is becoming increasingly litigious. Technology teachers may be forced to pay greater attention to managing safety and security as legal liability for harm caused during activities in school workshops is expected to increase. The safety of all students is a crucial component in schools. Effective teaching and learning can be improved in workshop areas where learner safety, or "Geborgenheit", is generated. The security of students while they participate in activities is the responsibility of the Mechanical Technology teacher. For school workshops, an efficient safety policy must be created to reduce the danger of injuries and harm to students. The primary method for reducing and preventing injuries and making sure that the teacher or school is not held accountable for damage, is a purposeful policy. The empirical investigation used a mixed research methodology, where Mechanical Technology teachers quantitatively and qualitatively assessed the management of security in school workshops. Data were triangulated (analytically, narratively, and discussed), and conclusions and suggestions were formed. The results show that teachers are unaware of their legal obligation to take care of students and are under-informed on delictual liability and education law. Due to the complexity of today's society, all participants in the education industry must recognize that understanding the legal and technological facets of the field is not only important, but also ought to be made essential. [For the complete Volume 21 proceedings, see ED629259.]

Sport is an increasingly important area of society both inside and outside of the school environment although this has not always been the case. Greater interest in sports policy is also emerging at both a European and International level with the prospective of a "Rights" based approach developing. The safety of those playing sport is fundamental and this is more problematic in those games where there is physical contact and an element of risk taking. Pressure to protect participants from injuries caused by mismatches in strength and weight is likely to increase because of the concussion litigation. This paper discusses the potential for liability for injuries caused within junior rugby, taking into account the current parameters to existing liability and the potential influence of relative age effects. It is foreseeable that in the future players will have to be assessed for their suitability to play contact sports based on factors other than age. [For the complete Volume 13, Number 1 proceedings, see ED568595.]

This paper begins by presenting three tests, which are included in the appendix, of one's awareness of physical risks. This exercise leads to a discussion of the differences between actual and perceived risk, why people participate in outdoor activities, and the inaccurate perception of actual risks. Complicating the issue of accurately perceiving physical risks are sociological, psychological, and physiological factors that affect judgment and decision making in the field. These factors and their effects are discussed. If participants fail to perceive the risks in an activity, they are less likely to take adequate precautions. In addition, liability issues surround the "voluntary assumption of risk." Furthermore, if leaders or participants have an inaccurate perception of risk, they obviously cannot make-high quality decisions. "Common sense" is a learned skill, therefore it is not common among beginners. Educators and leaders should not rely upon common sense but should teach and employ "good sense." Teaching judgment, decision making, and good sense requires teaching an accurate perception of risks. Good judgment and decision making require that leaders be aware of, and adjust for, the ways beginners perceive risks differently from experienced participants and that they factor in the sociological, psychological, and physiological factors affecting judgment. Contains 15 references. (TD)

This paper discusses course structure, teaching techniques, and field exercises for enhancing winter travelers' avalanche knowledge and skills. In two class sessions, the course typically consists of a historical perspective; a section on snow physics (clouds, types of snow crystals, effects of riming, identification of precipitated snow crystals, types of nonprecipitated snow, temperature gradient metamorphism, identification of metamorphosed crystals); use of visual aids; use of anecdotal material; and the causes of avalanches (new snow, old snow, terrain, wind, temperature). The class also addresses route finding, safety procedures, safety equipment, and rescue. In the first field session, students rotate among three stations covering transceiver searching, probing, and analyzing a snow pit. The second field session reinforces the first and gives students greater freedom to practice skills. The use of videos and Internet avalanche forecasts is encouraged to reinforce skills. (SAS)

An expedition is different from other forms of overnight wilderness travel in that it involves extended time and distance in the field; it is beyond the reach of immediate rescue; and the party is self-contained regarding gear, provisions, and decision-making responsibilities. Successful expeditions may prove to be powerful, life-changing experiences. Conversely, failed expeditions may be destructive to participants' physical, psychological, or spiritual well-being. The planning phase is essential in determining which of these outcomes will prevail. Expedition planners should arrange to keep their group safe; avoid degradation of wild lands and waterways; and achieve a fulfilling, exciting adventure. Two lists are presented to assist planning. List 1, preparation activities, addresses selecting an activity, a location, and companions; holding meetings to develop goals and plans; assuring safety; arranging finances; gathering information; gathering equipment; assuring access to drinking water and food supplies; practice and trouble-shooting; and arranging transportation for people and gear. List 2, equipment groups, is prefaced with advice to apply the "Is this really needed?" test when selecting gear. Considerations covered by this list include food and water; clothing; shelter; activity items; safety; hygiene; environmental protection; critical papers such as money, travel documents, and permits; entertainment and comforts; and transportation. Two additional, essential things to take on every expedition are good judgment, which can be developed and improved through practice, and common sense, which should not be assumed to be pervasive within the group. (TD)

The preservation of school safety should be a primary commitment of all educators. This paper presents findings of a study that examined school facility safety in 27 Georgia schools. Data were gathered from a survey of 9 elementary, 11 middle, and 7 high schools in south Georgia. The surveys elicited information related to both school-site safety and school-building safety. Respondents assessed the condition of their school buildings with a school-building evaluation instrument. The data show a significant relationship at the .05 level between school safety and school-building age for the middle schools. The relationship between the school-building safety score and school-building age was found to be statistically significant for middle and elementary schools at the .10 level. The general rating for school-facility safety was above average, except in areas such as corridors, parking lots, and playgrounds. Four tables are included. (Contains 8 references.) (LMI)

This paper stresses the outdoor recreation and education professionals should understand aspects of liability, negligence, and risk management. There are four elements that must be present if a person or organization is to be considered negligent: the presence of a legal duty of care, a breach of duty, proximate cause, and actual damages. When determining the legal duty of care, it is necessary to define the relationship between the property owner and the person pursuing a recreational activity. A person who enters property to pursue a recreational activity may be an invitee, a licensee, or a trespasser. From a legal standpoint, the recreational landowner owes the highest standard of care to the invitee and owes no standard of care to trespassers. A legal defense that is used frequently in outdoor recreation litigation is that of assumption of risk. This defense can only be used when the outdoor recreationists have been made aware of risks involved, understand and appreciate their nature, and freely choose to incur a particular risk. A signed agreement to participate should be obtained to record that each participant is aware of the inherent risks involved in a recreational activity. This document should include a detailed description of the activity, injuries that may result from participation, safety rules, and emergency procedures. Equally important are the development and implementation of a risk management program. Components of a risk management program include identifying and evaluating the risks involved in a recreational activity, taking necessary steps to reduce the frequency and severity of injuries associated with a particular activity, purchasing insurance to cover high risk activities, and continuously evaluating and updating the program. (Contains 12 references.) (LP)

This paper discusses subjective hazards in wilderness activities and suggests means of assessing and managing related risks. Wilderness educators conveniently group hazards into objective and subjective ones. Objective hazards such as rockfall, moving water, and weather, while not necessarily predictable, are visible and understandable. Subjective hazards are harder to recognize, and represent errors in planning and leadership. Venturing into the wilderness with inadequate food or equipment or an unrealistic schedule is a planning mistake. Inappropriate or poorly understood goals and expectations, lack of flexibility, communication difficulties, inability to manage stress, distraction, indecision, and inaccurate estimation of participant abilities are errors in leadership and expedition behavior. Brief sections discuss the importance of guarding against complacency, faulty low estimates of risk, overconfidence, unrealistic goals, impatience and schedule pressures, peer pressure and competition, student misconceptions of staff infallibility, inaccurate information and assumptions, and personal and environmental distractions. Expedition leaders should also make a practice of assessing their participants for "high maintenance" people and survivors, and reading incident accounts about wilderness accidents. (SV)

This paper documents an approach to meeting the training requirements of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) and the "reasonable accommodation" requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) for individuals with developmental disabilities. It describes a training program used with three adult workers with mild mental retardation which utilized icons to teach recognition of: (1) protective equipment; (2) hazards; (3) emergency response equipment; (4) the National Fire Protection Association labeling system; (5) target organs (dangers with acute or chronic effects on specific body organs); and (6) routes of entry (such as ingestation or inhalation). Subjects were given four weekly training sessions. Significant differences were found between baseline and post training scores with substantial maintenance on retesting 2 months after the training. Results have implications for training which increases employment opportunities for people with developmental disabilities. (Contains 14 references.) (DB)

Reducing the incidence and severity of child and adolescent injuries requires a multifaceted approach involving broad-based health and social service agencies, including schools. Recognition of the need for injury prevention education began with the Industrial Revolution in the 1900s, and safety education was developed as a unit of health instruction in the schools of the 1920s and 1930s. With the growing popularity of the automobile, concerns about traffic safety, pedestrian safety, and alcohol use and the automobile, brought about expansion of health education programs. Injury prevention and safety today are considered a content area of comprehensive school health instruction. Instruction should include attitudes toward safety, causes of accidents, home and school safety, traffic safety, fire prevention, survival education, environmental hazards, accident prevention, emergency health care, safety personnel, resources and agencies, individual safety precautions, recreational safety, occupational safety, safety rules, and laws and regulations. The content should be age-appropriate and should reflect the health problems of the nation, state, and local communities. State mandates concerning injury prevention instruction are noted, a list of barriers to effective injury prevention instruction is presented, and recommendations for program development are offered. (JDD)

A pictograph and icon-driven training program has been specifically designed for educators who are responsible for teaching the developmentally disabled regarding the safe use of hazardous chemicals. In alignment with the Americans with Disabilities Act, it offers "reasonable accommodation" by those who educate and train this special population in schools within a vocational training center, sheltered workshop, or workers enclave. The purpose of the program is to promote worker understanding of safety issues involving the Occupational Safety and Health Administration "Right-to-Know" specifically for those individuals who have difficulty reading printed text. The presentation of the material includes specifics on understanding labeling systems, the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and other pertinent topics such as hazard detection, care of the victim of an exposure, and accident simulation drills. The training includes the use of computer software designed to promote understanding of the MSDS with the aid of picture icons. This PC software program is designed to supplement the MSDS with chemical identification, key label words, and picture icons with the following: National Fire Protection Association Code, fire extinguishing media, routes of entry, health hazard icons, personal protective equipment, pictographs, and target organ graphics. An assessment package is provided. (YLB)

This publication is a compilation of five papers that were originally presented at the 1975 National Conference of the College and University Safety Educators Association. Most of the booklet consists of the text of these papers; also included are a copy of the conference agenda and a complete roster of conference participants. The five papers presented at the conference include the following: "OSHA's Relationship to Higher Education," by Raymond C. Hall; "Safety Education: What Is It? Where Do We Go From Here?" by Kenneth F. Licht; "Safety Education: What Is It? Where Do We Go From Here?" by Dale O. Ritzel; "Role of the Safety Generalist: An Educational Solution," by Ted Ferry; and "A Safety Program in the Urban School Setting, 1975," by Larry Bates. (JG)

The papers compiled here were presented at the fourth symposium in a series designed to provide a continuing introduction to current aspects of occupational safety and health. The papers represent eight topics: (1) special health programs, (2) degenerative disease and injury of the back, (3) job stress and work performance, (4) role of industry in preventive cardiology, (5) toxic compounds in industry, (6) emergency medical planning and industrial disaster, (7) industrial toxins and the community, and (8) problems in occupational health programming. Some representative titles of papers included under each of these areas consecutively are as follows: (1) How to Establish an Employee Health Service in a Reluctant Hospital; and Occupational Medical Support of a Research Hospital, (2) Examination of the Lumbosacral Spine; and Biomechanics of Manual Materials Handling and Low-Back Pain, (3) Variables in Occupational Stress; and The Stress of Relocation-Recognition and Prevention, (4) Exercise Prescription in an Industrial Fitness Program; and Cost Effectiveness in Hypertension Management, (5) Principles and Practices of Industrial Air Standards; and Contributions of the Industrial Hygienist, (6) A Pre-Triage System for Mass Casualty Care; and Electrical Injuries, (7) Arsenic Contamination Near a Copper Smelter; and The Michigan PBB Incident, and (8) The Role of Nursing in Occupational Medicine; and The Benefit-to-Risk Ratio in Occupational Health. (EM)

Any outdoor educator knows about rules. Outdoor educators spend a considerable amount of time at conferences talking about them: risk management plans, accepted safety practices, and first aid protocols. You name it, they've got a rule. When a Buddhist friend asked if rules really made programs safer, the author's first response was yes. His friend responded that no list of rules makes a program any safer. One must learn the rules, then go beyond the rules and build a storehouse of knowledge and experience in the sphere of activity that the rules cover. In recognition of the fact that understanding is a step above rote memory, the author urged his friend to elaborate. He stated that an individual's true well-being is not the product of rules but of being part of a culture of safety. A culture of safety is one in which everyone plays a part: managers, trip leaders, and participants. It is not based on rules, but rather on the concept of participatory safety. It's a simple concept but powerful: members of the group watch out for each other. That's very different from the typical situation where one leader makes all the decisions and is largely in charge of safety. Outdoor programs should cultivate a culture of safety in which trip safety is the concern of the entire group, not just one person. (TD)

In the U.S. there has been an increase in the number of outdoor recreationists requiring rescue. While it might seem logical that this trend results from the increasing numbers of outdoor enthusiasts, other factors contribute. Mass media give wide exposure to outdoor activities and use outdoor recreation to market many products and services. Such advertising and televised broadcasts of outdoor sports seldom emphasize the importance of preparation and training and often encourage risk-taking among weekend participants. National Park rangers suggest that rather than learning skills from wilderness veterans, recreationists now jump right into participation and rely on cellular phones to call for help. The increased use of cell phones in the wilderness also means that people launch search and rescue operations casually, without trying to get themselves out of trouble. Even if participants are prepared and use good judgment, certain environments present unique hazards that contribute to accidents, injury, and death. A section on alpine environments discusses recommended equipment for mountain day hikes, numbers of mountaineering accidents per year, primary causes of accidents, contributing factors, and participant age. Contributing factors and accident prevention are also discussed for desert environments, winter activities, and whitewater sports. Contains references and a bibliography. (SV)

Young drivers across the United States represent a persistent traffic safety problem. Many interventions have been imposed on these drivers but few studies have evaluated the impact of these interventions on risky behaviors or traffic safety measures. To fill this gap, a review was undertaken to examine the most rigorous methodological evaluations of youth-oriented traffic safety interventions so as to identify the most effective interventions. The results are reported here. The interventions were classified according to the ABC (antecedents, behaviors, and consequences) model of applied behavior change. Antecedent interventions include driver education, alcohol education, peer interventions, instructional parental involvement, media campaigns, and licensing policies and driving restrictions. Consequence interventions include accelerated penalties, court-ordered programs, and drinking and driving rehabilitation. Many interventions are classified as "mixed interventions" and include minimum drinking age legislation, blood alcohol concentration legislation, mandatory seat belt use, and graduated and provisional licensing. Results show that behavioral traffic interventions are highly variable in both the nature and the effectiveness of the intervention. The most effective programs employed both antecedents and consequences, instructing youth how they should or should not drive and enforcing consequences for inappropriate behaviors. Multi-component interventions, like graduated licensing, also demonstrated reductions in risk. (RJM)

Mass media portrayals of unsafe, irresponsible outdoor activities encourage many people using national parks, forests, wilderness areas, and other public lands to exhibit little concern about environmental responsibility, safety, and the rights of other people. Such behavior threatens natural resources and the opportunity for others to enjoy them in the future, and results in unnecessary injuries, rescue missions, and emergency medical services. Education campaigns such as the highly successful Smokey the Bear campaign have resulted in various information and education programs for mitigating visitor-related management problems. Brochures are relatively inexpensive and are widely used. Recently, the National Outdoor Leadership School, the National Park Service, the USDA Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service cooperated to produce a new series of publications on the theme of "Leave No Trace." These are particularly effective because they provide regional and park-specific information about minimum impact practices. The effectiveness of publications can be improved when combined with a personal contact. Exhibits and displays can present complex detailed information, and if agency personnel are present, questions can be answered and supplemental information can be distributed. Direct communication from agency personnel is one of the most influential, and expensive, media. Videotapes are receiving increased use, and the Internet has tremendous potential for providing responsible information. Eight principles of effective wilderness education are presented. Contains 18 references. (TD)

Fishing vessel accidents occur because of complex interactions of human, technical, and environmental factors. Although they usually occur because of human actions, thoughts, or behavior, investigators and prevention educators are preoccupied with technical matters and equipment. Equipment, machinery, weather, and other objective facts are important, but these perspectives must be broadened. Accident investigators and prevention educators should ground their strategies in interpretivist, radical humanist, radical structuralist, and functionalist approaches. These different perspectives were used to analyze what happened during the loss of the Scotia Cape, a Canadian fishing vessel that sank. The Transportation Safety Board investigation has determined it probably rolled over and sank because of "free surface effect," which is important as a result, not a cause, of the accident. The cause resides in the unequal power relations between the company and crew and between the skipper and crew, in their "false consciousness," and in their subjectively derived notions of safety and risk. Prevention programs informed by interpretivist, radical humanist, radical structuralist, and functionalist perspectives would involve use of techniques that elicit and make use of the learner's background and experience. Because the fishing fleet is highly differentiated, content would be adapted to local circumstances. Prevention education processes would be participatory--involve fewer lectures and more active collaboration with learners. (60 references) (YLB)

Critical decision making on a whitewater trip goes beyond simply having knowledge of safety practices. Rather, prudent decisions are arrived at through a complex interplay of diverse factors. The question is: how can outdoor educators prepare themselves and their staff to make the "right" decision when faced with a potentially dangerous situation? Experience is always the best teacher, but short of being involved or being on hand during actual river accidents, the next best way to prepare is through the study of river accidents. Case studies vividly describe what can go wrong when basic river safety procedures are violated, and also show that river accidents happen even when no basic safety procedures are violated. The latter type of incident reminds us that rules or lists of safety practices are not always reliable and that we must do our own thinking. River accident reports have been published in books, journals, and newsletters. A sample case study of a kayaking fatality is presented and analyzed, and 23 whitewater accidents that occurred in 1995 are listed. These accidents indicate a continuing trend: both commercial and noncommercial programs are running more difficult rivers while the physical ability, experience, and fitness of rafting clients have been declining. (Author/SV)

The purpose of this research project at San Francisco State University was to develop and evaluate integrated assessment and intervention strategies to locate the "at risk" older driver and remediate deficits in knowledge or skills about driving and traffic safety. The identification of the "at risk" older driver should suggest appropriate, cost effective intervention points and procedures. The outcomes should be increased older driver mobility, driver safety, and increased traffic safety (i.e., reduced traffic accident and fatality rates) for all drivers and pedestrians. The effectiveness of a multi-phasic, programmatic approach to accident prevention was evaluated using a pretest-posttest control group design. Two hundred and fifty-four older drivers were screened to assess risk of accident. Those determined "at risk" continued in a classroom education program. If understanding of driving and traffic safety were not improved, driving simulation was used to remediate deficits. Results indicate that older drivers demonstrated improved attitudes and increased knowledge of driving and traffic safety but little change in skills when exposed to the three program phases individually. They demonstrated improved attitudes, increased knowledge and skills after exposure to the multi-phasic, programmatic approach, which was shown to be cost effective, particularly when delivered via the computer-based version. Appendix includes the Comprehensive Older Driver Assessment Program questionnaire. (Author/MSF)