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The EU has set the ambitious target of raising the share of EU energy consumption produced from renewable resources to 32% by 2030, with a target of climate neutrality by 2050. The aim of this paper is to assess the role of biomass usage in the context of these targets. The paper identifies the progress made between 2013 and 2022 by focusing on a selection of EU countries. The largest bioenergy increments of 130, 77, and 60 PJ were reported for Poland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. This study evaluates the crucial role of co-generation and heat in EU regions, with biomass usage between 55 and 80% of the combined heat and power (CHP) energy in Nordic countries. The future perspectives for bioenergy based on EU policies, biomass resources, and technical issues were addressed. The EU possesses around 9% of the global biomass supply, ensuring a certain level of biomass resource dependence. Thus, the biomass usage demand in energy production, non-energy sectors, and transport is expected to rise, leading to increments of 13–76% on biomass imports. It appears that bioenergy development is mostly limited by economic issues and uneven support for bioenergy in different EU countries as well as environmental issues. The study shows a promising and sustainable potential of bioenergy in the EU as a renewable energy source while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and the economy. By 2050, liquid biofuels are likely to be increasingly used in the transport sector. Non-energy sector usage of biomass is still in an early stage of development, except for the pulp and paper industry, and significant use of biomass in non-energy sectors seems unlikely in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland is an important producer of rapeseed used in the biofuel industry. The rate of production of the biofuel industry increased after Poland's accession to the European Union (EU). The reasons for these changes are numerous, of which the European Union's energy policy is the most important. This paper aims to analyze the performance of the biofuel industry in Poland in view of changes in the market. Moreover, I evaluated changes in the biofuel industry after Poland's accession to the EU. In addition, I analyzed the fixed and current assets of the Polish biofuel. The hypothesis that the price of rapeseed oil is the key determinant of profitability in the biodiesel industry was formulated. A statistical analysis proved the second hypothesis stating that the net profit of biodiesel companies depends on biodiesel production to the greatest extent. The time range of the analysis was 2005–2021. To analyze the economic performance of the biofuel industry in Poland, these changes were used. A regression analysis to find factors influencing the economic performance of the biofuel industry was used. More and more oils are used for the production of first-generation biofuels. Refined rapeseed oil also increased from 386.5 thousand tons to 780.6 thousand tons. Such numbers demonstrate the development of biofuel markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Huge amounts of carbon being sequestered in forest ecosystems make them an important land carbon sink at the global scale. Their ability to withdraw carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere, whose concentration is gradually increasing due to anthropogenic emissions, renders them important natural climate-mitigation solutions. The urgent need for transition from high to zero net emission on country, continental, and global scales, to slow down the warming to an acceptable level, calls for the analysis of different economic sectors' roles in reaching that ambitious goal. Here, we examine changes in CO 2 emission and sequestration rates during recent decades focusing on the coal-dominated energy sector and Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) as well as wood production at the country level. The main purpose of the presented study is to examine the potential of storing carbon in standing forest biomass and wood products in Poland as well as the impact of disturbances. The ratio of LULUCF absorption of CO 2 to its emission in Poland has ranged from about 1% in 1992 to over 15% in 2005. From a climate-change mitigation point of view, the main challenge is how to maximize the rate and the duration of CO 2 withdrawal from the atmosphere by its storage in forest biomass and wood products. Enhancing carbon sequestration and storage in forest biomass, via sustainable and smart forestry, is considered to be a nature-based climate solution. However, not only forests but also wood-processing industries should be included as important contributors to climate-change mitigation, since harvested wood products substitute materials like concrete, metal, and plastic, which have a higher carbon footprint. The energy perspective of the paper embraces two aspects. First, CO 2 sequestration in forests and subsequently in harvested wood products, is an effective strategy to offset a part of national CO 2 emissions, resulting largely from fossil fuel burning for energy-production purposes. Second, wood as biomass is a renewable energy source itself, which played an important role in sustaining energy security for many individual citizens of Poland during the unusual conditions of winter 2022/2023, with a scarce coal supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes examples of energy crops that are profitable to burn, and whose cultivation is not complicated or expensive. Rapid growth of biomass, especially the green mass of energy crops, is indicated, which means that, in relation to fossil fuels, energy crops are considered renewable raw materials. An assessment of Polish non-food energy agriculture was conducted in the context of the prospects of a renewable energy source, namely, biomass. Recommendations for crop cultivation, the size of possible yields and the most important parameters of the obtained biomass, which have the greatest impact on the suitability of energy use, are presented. Materials of biological origin for combustion are divided into three groups: wood waste, by-products and plant products for the energy industry. It is indicated that 2 tons (Mg) of dry wood or straw is energetically equivalent to 1 Mg of coal, and 1 m3 of biogas is energetically equivalent to 1 kg of Polish coal. A novelty of this article is the interpretation of obtaining primary energy, including energy from renewable sources, in the European Union and Poland, taking into account the production of wood waste, straw, cereals and energy crops. The mechanism of the impact of the production parameters of energy crops was revealed during the prepared analysis of the prospects of Polish energy agriculture. Additionally, we conducted an analysis of the potential of biomass as a source of energy in the context of: obtaining primary energy, including energy from renewable sources, in the European Union and Poland; the number of biogas plants in Poland; and the area of agricultural land that is potentially useful for the cultivation of energy crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing demand for social and regulatory forest ecosystem services can significantly modify the availability and cost of biomass for energy purposes. This article presents a model for optimizing biomass supply chains using a linear programming framework integrated with a geographic information system (GIS). Based on a given type of biomass resource, its calorific value, price, distance from the power plant, and transportation costs, the model identifies the optimal source of biomass, allowing it to cover the demand for the required total energy value with the lowest possible costs. The case study includes the Połaniec power plant in southeastern Poland and potential sources of forest biomass and agricultural straw within 100 km of the plant. The impact of constraints on the availability and cost of biomass was analyzed in the following scenarios: (1) all forest and agriculture biomass is available, (2) forest area in Natura 2000 network is excluded, and (3) firewood and forests with dominated ecological and social function are excluded. Unit costs of biomass varied depending on biomass availability and energy demands. The lowest unit costs of biomass (3.19 EUR/MJ) were for energy demand at the level of 1 TJ yearly for all kinds of biomass and the highest (4.91 EUR/MJ) for ecological and social constraints and energy demand 4 TJ. As energy demand increased, unit costs increased, and the ability to meet this demand with just one type of biomass decreased. The energy biomass sector can utilize the model to benefit both biomass producers and their final buyers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the main determinants of biomass market development from a regional perspective in the context of current EU climate and energy policy. The EU's targeting of climate neutrality implies a new, multifaceted role for agriculture as a producer of energy resources. The challenge is to orient production to support the sustainable development of the circular economy. The possibility of using agricultural waste as a type of energy raw material aligns with a holistic approach to product management. The use of agricultural biomass as an energy raw material can enable increased energy self-sufficiency and reduced dependence on imported fuels among Poland's regions and an increase in the country's energy security. The aim of the study is to identify barriers to and opportunities for the development of the agricultural biomass market. The empirical section presents survey data from interviews with farm owners in the Polish province with the highest agricultural biomass potential, located in a region with one of the largest opencast mines in Europe. The estimated parameters of a logit model indicate that the logistical aspects of raw material collection and organization and a lack of knowledge of biomass are the main barriers to biomass development on the supply side. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issue of production of raw materials for energy generation on agricultural areas is a multileveled issue (the economic, social, environmental and other aspects should be considered). Plantations of energetic plants that represent an important component in satisfying the increasing demand for biomass resulting from the requirement of increasing the use of renewable energy sources in Poland and the European Union will be an important aspect in production of agricultural biomass during the nearest future. Agroenergetics should result in a significant development of agriculture. This paper aims at presenting the legal-economic and technological conditions of biomass production for energy generation purposes as concerns liquid biofuels (as a substitute for fuels produced on the base of crude oil) and solid biomass (used in heat and power generation). This is a consequence of high emissions of greenhouse gases from transport end heat and power generation sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper discusses issues related to the sectors of biofuels for transport. Development directions of those sectors and factors limiting the growth rate thereof are analysed. At present, researchers' attention is increasingly focused on development of the alternative fuels sector. Moreover, issues related to waste used in the sector of alternative fuels are now among the leading undertakings of environmental engineering. The authors have analysed the potential of biofuels sectors in Poland taking into account the EU's legislative requirements. The paper contains a discussion of the sector of esters, liquid biofuels, sector of lignocellulose, sector of liquid bio-hydrocarbons and, additionally, pays attention to the sector of electromobility as one of the most attractive and prospective sectors in terms of emission reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aimed to analyze the potential amount of electrical energy from biogas energy obtained from animal wastes in Turkey and Poland. Animal waste values were calculated by taking into account the recommended literature values. In determining the biomass energy potential of livestock enterprises in Turkey and Poland, FAO's 2012–2021 data were taken into account. The animal breeds selected as material in this study were cattle, goat, sheep, chicken, duck, goose, turkey, horse, pig, mule and donkey. Considering 10-year calculations, the potential amount of biogas energy that can be obtained from animal wastes for Turkey is 28,845,975 GJ, which is equivalent to 8,105,058 MWh of electrical energy. In Poland, the potential amount of biogas energy that can be generated from animal waste is 13,999,612 GJ, which is equivalent to 3,902,020 MWh of electricity. Moreover, it is estimated that the percentage of the potential amount of electricity to be obtained in 2021 to cover the amount of electricity consumed is 0.303% for Turkey and 0.392% for Poland. For 2021, the amount of economic gains that can be from electricity obtained was also calculated, and it was determined that this value can be 78,650,302 Euro for Turkey and 62,182,435 Euro for Poland. At the same time, it was calculated that the electricity needs of 406,170 houses in Turkey and 171,958 houses in Poland can be met in 2021. As a result, it is thought that the potential electricity to be obtained will contribute to determining energy gains and investment plans for biogas plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to evaluate changes in the number of small renewable energy sources (RES) power plants and the volume of generated energy in the years 2016–2020, with an outlook to year 2025. The study covered the area of Poland, including the division into provinces and different sources of renewable energy. Absolute values of electric power production and sale were presented, in addition to calculated structure indices. Moreover, the number and structure of small power plants using different renewable energy sources was determined for every Polish province. A classification of the provinces was made, where four classes were distinguished depending on the number of RES plants operating in the provinces. The research results allowed us to diagnose the current situation and make a prognosis for the future, which may translate into support for the development of particular types of installations, depending on the natural and economic characteristics of each area. The added value of the study stems from the fact that previous reports focused mainly on micro or large power plants and the time span covered data before and during the pandemic. This made it possible to assess the impact of the pandemic on the development of small renewable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the main objectives of a circular economy, Lemnaceae plants have great potential for different types of techniques to valorize their biomass for use in biofuel production. For this reason, scientific interest in this group of plants has increased in recent years. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of salt stress on the growth and development of S. polyrrhiza and the valorization of biomass for biofuel and energy production in a circular economy. Plants were grown in a variety of culture media, including standard 'Z' medium, tap water, 1% digestate from a biogas plant in Piaszczyna (54° 01′ 21″ N, 17° 10′ 19″ E), Poland) and supplemented with different concentrations of NaCl (from 25 to 100 mM). Plants were cultured under phytotron conditions at 24 °C. After 10 days of culture, plant growth, fresh and dry biomass, as well as physio-chemical parameters such as chlorophyll content index, gas exchange parameters (net photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance and intercellular CO2 concentration), chlorophyll fluorescence measurements were analyzed. After 10 days of the experiment, the percentage starch content of Spirodela shoot segments was determined. S. polyrrhiza was shown to have a high starch storage capacity under certain unfavorable growth conditions, such as salt stress and nutrient deficiency. In the W2 (50 mM NaCl) series, compared to the control (Control2), starch levels were 76% higher in shoots and 30% lower in roots. The analysis of the individual growth and development parameters of S. polyrrhiza plants in the experiment carried out indicates new possibilities for the use of this group of plants in biofuel and bioethanol production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Willows are one of the plants which can be used to produce biomass for energy purposes. Biomass production is classified as a renewable energy source. Increasing the share of renewable sources is one of the priority actions for European Union countries due to the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. To achieve the best possible growth of the willow and increase its biomass for fuel, it is crucial to provide optimal water conditions for its growth. The aim of the study was to determine the water requirements of willows under the conditions of the western Polish climate and to verify whether this area is potentially favourable for willow cultivation. The novelty of this paper lies in its multi-year climatic analysis in the context of willow water needs for the area of three voivodships: Lubusz, Lower Silesian, and West Pomeranian. This is one of the few willow water-needs analyses for this region which considers the potential for widespread willow cultivation and biomass production in western Poland. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was determined by the Blaney-Criddle equation and then, using plant coefficients, water needs for willow were determined. Calculations were carried out for the growing season lasting from 21 May to 31 October. The estimated water needs during the vegetation season amounted on average to 408 mm for the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, 405 mm for the Lubusz Voivodeship, and 402 mm for the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. The conducted analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that these needs do not differ significantly between the voivodeships. Therefore, it can be concluded that the water requirements of willows in western Poland do not differ significantly, and the whole region shows similar water conditions for willow cultivation. Furthermore, it was found that water needs are increasing from decade to decade, making rational water management necessary. This is particularly important in countries with limited water resources, such as Poland. Correctly determining the water requirements of willow and applying them to the cultivation of this plant should increase the biomass obtained. With appropriate management, willow cultivation in Poland can provide an alternative energy source to coal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to analyze the economic feasibility of generating a novel, innovative biofuel—bioenergy—obtained from deposit bio-components by means of a pilot installation of sewage sludge bio-conversion. Fuel produced from sewage sludge biomass bears the potential of being considered a renewable energy source. In the present study, 23 bioconversion cycles were conducted taking into consideration the different contents, types of high carbohydrate additives, moisture content of the mixture as well as the shape of the bed elements. The biofuel was produced using post fermentation sewage sludge for industrial energy and heat generation. Based on the presented research it was concluded that the composite biofuel can be co-combusted with hard coal with the optimal percentage share within the range of 20–30% w/w. Sewage sludge stabilized by means of anaerobic digestion carried out in closed fermentation chambers is the final product. The average values of the CO2, CO, NO, NOx and SO2 concentrations in flue gas from co-combustion of a bioconversion product (20% w/w) and coal were 5.43%, 1903 ppm, 300 ppm, 303 ppm and 179 ppm, respectively. In total, within a period of 4.5 years of the plant operation, 1853 Mg of fuel was produced and successfully co-combusted with coal in a power plant. The research demonstrated that in the waste water treatment sector there exists energy potential in terms of calorific value which translates into tangible benefits both in the context of energy generation as well as environmental protection. Over 700,000 Mg of bio-sewage sludge is generated annually in Poland. According to findings of the study presented in the paper, the proposed solution could give 970,000 Mg of dry mass of biomass qualified as energy biomass replacing fossil fuels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biochar can be useful to overcome several environmental challenges in different sectors of energy, industry, and agriculture. However, there are currently only a limited number of studies with the employment of biochar for various applications and their environmental impacts. This study develops an LCA framework to evaluate the climate impacts of biochar production and its applications in soil enhancement and as a substitute for coal-based fuels in steel industries and then compares it with conventional biomass usage for energy production for Sweden, Italy, and Poland. Various pyrolysis operating temperatures are also considered to determine the optimal conditions for each location. The results show that biomass pyrolysis with biochar usage in the agricultural sector has the least environmental impact with the most significant potential in Poland followed by Italy. lower temperatures (around 350 °C) are more favorable for Sweden in terms of CO2 emissions, due to the country's renewable energy-based electrical system. Low to moderate temperatures (350–500 °C) are found to be optimal for pyrolysis temperature in Italy, while higher temperatures (around 650 °C) yield the highest GHG reduction for both biochar applications in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biomass, a basic product of agriculture, is one of the main sinks of carbon in global cycle. Additionally, it can be used as a renewable source of energy, leading to depletion in CO2 emissions. The paper presents the results of estimations on the current and potential share of catch crop cultivation in climate change mitigation, in Poland, where the agricultural sector plays a significant economic role. The estimation of CO2 assimilation in biomass was performed on the basis of our own data on yields of commonly used catch crops, obtained in randomly selected 80 farms in Poland, and the content of carbon in the biomass. Calculation of energy potential of the biomass was conducted, assuming its conversion into biogas, on the basis of our own data on catch crop yields and the literature data on their biomethane potentials. The results have shown that catch crops in Poland, which are cultivated to an area of 1.177 mln ha sequestrate 6.85 mln t CO2 yr−1. However, considering the total area of fields used for spring crop cultivation, it is possible to increase the sequestration to 18.25 mln t CO2 yr−1, which constitutes about 6% of the annual emission of CO2 in Poland. Biomethane yields per hectare of particular crops ranged from 965 to 1762 m3 CH4 ha−1, and were significantly lower compared to maize, which is commonly in use in biogas plants. However, due to high biomethane potential and favorable chemical composition, catch crops can be a valuable co-substrate for the feedstocks with a high C:N ratio. The potential recovery of energy produced from aboveground biomass of catch crops harvested in Poland during the year is 6327 GWh of electricity and 7230 GWh of thermal energy. Thus, it is advisable to promote catch crops on a wide scale due to substantial environmental benefits of their cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to show how the situation of domestic biofuels in Poland and the alternative fuels sector is changing. On the basis of our own research and the available literature, changes in the production potential of Poland in the field of alternative fuels/biofuels are examined. Moreover, the reasons for changes in the production structure are analyzed. The flexibility of production potential to changes in legal conditions is assessed, and the value of sectors and their future are determined. This paper discusses legal and market aspects related to selected renewable energy sources used in Polish transport. Based on a review of literature and statistical data, the production and use of methyl esters and bioethanol are characterized in detail. Analysis of legal regulations enables the presentation of targets regarding renewable energy source (RES) use in transport by 2030. The results of studies conducted in 2020 are discussed with regard to the value (attractiveness) of methyl esters, bioethanol, electromobility and liquid bio-hydrocarbons, and these are compared and contrasted with the result from earlier years since 2010. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biomass is currently the main renewable energy source (RES) in the EU, particularly in Poland. Solid biomass for energy purposes is primarily sourced from forests, the wood processing industry, and agriculture. A significant source of this energy feedstock could also be short-rotation woody crops (SRWCs), including black locust, poplar, and willow. Since numerous factors determine the SRWC biomass quality, the current study aimed at assessing biomass thermophysical properties and elemental composition depending on the plant species, soil enrichment procedure, and the plant harvest rotation over a consecutive 12-year period of cultivation. The characteristics under study, including the moisture content, ash content, volatile matter, fixed carbon, higher heating value (HHV), and the carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine contents, were significantly differentiated by all the main factors, i.e., the SRWC species, the soil enrichment procedure, the harvest rotation, and the interactions between these factors. The SRWC species accounted for the highest percentage of the variation in the biomass moisture content, ash content, HHV, and nitrogen content, while the harvest rotation made the largest contribution to the variation in carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine contents. The black locust biomass was characterized by the significantly lowest moisture content (an average of 38.89%) and the highest sulfur content (an average of 0.033% DM), nitrogen content (an average of 0.91% DM), and chlorine content (an average of 0.032% DM). However, poplar was characterized by the highest HHV (an average of 19.84 GJ Mg−1 DM) and the highest moisture content (56.52% DM), carbon content (56.52% DM), and ash content (an average of 1.67% DM). Willow was characterized by the lowest ash content (an average of 1.67% DM), a medium moisture content, and the lowest nitrogen content (an average of 0.38% DM) and chlorine content (an average of 0.19% DM). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we present the possibility of applying the concept of elasticity in the system of sustainable energy development through the use of wood biomass. We used a dual (socio-ecological and economic) approach to sustainable energy development. The research was carried out using the methods of reduction reasoning, scientific observation, and examination of source documents. We identified crisis threats in the context of sustainable energy development. Then, we analyzed the supply of wood biomass in Poland, taking into account its geographical location. As a result, we identified and characterized the causal relationships between the assumptions of the concept of resistance and the sustainable development of energy with the use of wood biomass. We found that the concepts of resilience can be adapted to assessing energy sustainability. This adaptation is based on resilience, flexibility, and strategic ability to revitalize the country. We found that five key threats (extreme weather events, climate breakdown, pollution, infectious diseases, loss of biodiversity) affect both the energy-sustainability system and forest management, and the relationship is two-way. We show that the production of forest biomass is compatible with modern forest management and supports the implementation of sustainable energy development, which takes place under the concept of resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: As part of the European Union (EU) accession treaty, Poland is obliged to increase the share of renewable electricity production to 7.5% by 2010 (from a present share of about 2% in 2002). Most of this increase is expected to be covered by biomass-based electricity generation. This paper investigates the potential for co-firing of biomass and coal in the Polish power-generation system. More specifically, this study focuses on matching potentials in biomass supply with opportunities for co-firing biomass in existing coal-fired power plants. Available estimates of biomass supply and information on the power plant infrastructure are used as input for modelling the co-firing potential for each of the 16 regions in Poland (“Voivodship”). The modelling also gives the additional cost of the electricity and the CO2-avoidance cost for the co-firing. The result shows a potential of electricity produced from biomass in co-firing of 1.6–4.6% (2.3–6.6TWhe) of the total electricity production in 2010. Adding this potential to the existing production of about 2% electricity from renewable energy sources (RES-E) gives an overall contribution of RES-E in the range 3.6–6.6%. The additional cost for the implementation of co-firing is less than €20perMWhe (the average electricity price in Poland in 2003 was €96perMWhe) corresponding to a CO2-avoidance cost of less than €20pertonne CO2. In summary it can be concluded that although co-firing can serve as a low-cost option for near-term increase of RES-E, there is still an additional 0.9–3.9% of other RES-E production required to be developed to reach the 2010 target of 7.5% RES-E. The results call for quick action with respect to implementation of co-firing, if Poland should have any chance to reach the RES-E target by 2010. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Poplars (Populus spp.) managed in short rotation woody crop (SRWC) systems are considered very promising in terms of biomass production for energy purposes in a temperate zone. In this study, several gaps in knowledge regarding the selection of the plant material, cultivar‐specific responses to coppicing and rotation length are addressed. Five‐ and 10‐year rotation lengths were considered, with a focus on the sustainability of the plantation and the quantification of the biomass production of 10 commercially available hybrid poplar cultivars during two consecutive 5‐year rotation cycles versus one 10‐year rotation in northern Poland. The biomass production varied considerably among cultivars, ranging from 1.6 ('AF8') to 7.5 ('NE42') Mg ha−1 year−1 at the end of the first 5‐year rotation, and 0.0 ('AF8')–5.4 ('Degrosso') Mg ha−1 year−1 in the second 5‐year rotation, while in a single 10‐year rotation, the mean annual increment (MAI) ranged from 1.0 ('AF8') to 15.1 ('NE42') Mg ha−1 yr−1. The 5‐year rotation cycles negatively influenced the sustainability of the plantation due to the high mortality of stems and sprouts in the second 5‐year coppice rotation. In the case of 5‐year and longer rotations, replanting (not resprouting) after harvest may be a more advantageous practice for maximizing the regeneration. The 10‐year rotation cycle allowed for enough development of the crown and root systems to produce sufficient basal area and height to achieve maximal MAI in the trees. The study revealed that an age ≥10 is a biologically optimal rotation age as the slope of MAI was equal/close to zero. This study further showed the crucial importance of testing cultivars before introducing them on a commercial scale and provided valuable information on poplar cultivars available to stakeholders in the biomass market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Giant miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus Greef and Deuter) and Amur silver grass (Miscanthus sacchariflorus Maxim./Hack) are rhizomatous grasses with a C4 photosynthetic pathway that are widely cultivated as energy crops. For those species to be successfully used in bioenergy generation, their yields have to be maintained at a high level in the long term. The biomass yield (fresh and dry matter [DM] yield) and energy efficiency (energy inputs, energy output, energy gain, and energy efficiency ratio) of giant miscanthus and Amur silver grass were compared in a field experiment conducted in 2007–2017 in North‐Eastern Poland. Both species were characterized by high above‐ground biomass yields, and the productive performance of M. × giganteus was higher in comparison with M. sacchariflorus (15.5 vs. 9.3 Mg DM ha−1 year−1 averaged for 1–11 years of growth). In the first year of the experiment, the energy inputs associated with the production of M. × giganteus and M. sacchariflorus were determined at 70.5 and 71.5 GJ/ha, respectively, and rhizomes accounted for around 78%–79% of total energy inputs. In the remaining years of cultivation, the total energy inputs associated with the production of both perennial rhizomatous grasses reached 13.6–15.7 (M. × giganteus) and 16.9–17.5 GJ ha−1 year−1 (M. sacchariflorus). Beginning from the second year of cultivation, mineral fertilizers were the predominant energy inputs in the production of M. × giganteus (78%–86%) and M. sacchariflorus (80%–82%). In years 2–11, the energy gain of M. × giganteus reached 50 (year 2) and 264–350 GJ ha−1 year−1 (years 3–11), and its energy efficiency ratio was determined at 4.7 (year 2) and 18.6–23.3 (years 3–11). The energy gain and the energy efficiency ratio of M. sacchariflorus biomass in the corresponding periods were determined at 87–234 GJ ha−1 year−1 and 6.1–14.3, respectively. Both grasses are significant and environmentally compatible sources of bioenergy, and they can be regarded as potential energy crops for Central‐Eastern Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Poland, rapeseed production has been the fastest growing branch of plant production since 2000. Rapeseed yields have increased 2.5 times in the last 20 years. The main reason for this trend was the implementation of obligations resulting from legal acts by Member States relating to increasing the share of RES in the structure of primary energy production, and in particular relating to the share of biofuels in fuels used in transport. In Poland in the years 2010–2020, about 1.0–1.6 million tonnes of rape seeds were used for this purpose annually. Due to the fact that biofuel production competes for raw materials with the food economy, at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, many representatives of various circles intensified their voices, calling for withdrawal from the policy supporting the biofuel sector, which may have resulted in a decrease in oilseed plant cultivation areas. As a result of the research conducted here, it was determined that the place of oilseed rape in the sowing structure will be taken by rye, triticale and, on good soils, by wheat. Compared to rape, their production is characterised by lower income per 1 ha; in the years 2013–2019, these differences amounted to: wheat—8 EUR, triticale—102.3 EUR, and rye—168 EUR. This situation will deteriorate the value cereal cultivation sites and will result in a decrease in their yields. On the basis of the conducted research, the estimated value of rape as a forecrop for wheat, triticale, and rye was, respectively: 103.7; 64.6 and 46.7 EUR. An additional advantage of oilseed rape is that it is an excellent bee resource and is classified as a commodity crop, i.e., one from which significant amounts of honey can be obtained, with a net value of EUR 55 per hectare. In addition, in many agricultural holdings, as a result of forecasted changes in plant production, there will be an accumulation of field work during the harvest period, which will also affect the worse use of machinery and storage areas. The consequence of increasing the area under which cereal crops and their supply can grow may be the decline in production profitability and thus the income situation of farms, but this will be assessed at the next stage of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy sources (RES) play an important role in the European Union's energy sector as a result of the energy policy framework adopted. Its share in the final energy consumption varies depending on the country and the adopted energy policy. The article presents the structure of electricity production from renewable energy sources in Poland in the years 2002–2019. It was found that the share of energy production from hydroelectric power plants in Poland in relation to the amount of energy produced from renewable energy sources in the analyzed years has strongly decreased. The reason for this state was an increase in the production of energy coming from wind and biomass energy combined with an increase in subsidies for these energy producers. Additionally, unstable hydrological conditions, mainly low river flows, may be the reason for the low share of energy produced in power plants. As a case study, data for five small hydropower plants (SHP) located on the Gwda river (north-western Poland) were analyzed. Electricity production volumes were analyzed depending on the size of the Gwda river flow. It was found that the lower amount of electricity produced at SHPs on the Gwda river is mainly due to lower flows in the river. In the future, unstable electricity production from renewable energy sources may have a significant impact on achieving Poland's energy targets in 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The topic of the article considers the functioning of the renewable energy (RE) sector in Poland. This is really important in the context of the energy transition of the national economy because it influences the creation of modern technologies and increases the competitiveness and innovation of the country. Poland is in a process of energy transition where the RE sector has been developing for two decades. The authors aimed to research the RE sector improvement possibilities in Poland, including the influence of this sector on chosen social and economic aspects. Because of this research's aim a critical situation assessment of RE in Poland was conducted and a survey of a group of experts in this field was also involved. Legal, physical and mental determinants and their influence on RE sector were looked into. In the legal determinant context a necessity to simplify relevant legislation acts in Poland was found. Undoubtedly there is a need to improve several legal acts, including the Distance Act. In physical determinants it was found that solar, wind and biomass energy have the biggest chances for development. In the case of mental determinants the authors paid attention to the need of educating the public about using and obtaining energy. It is also important to make people aware how the RE sector influences the low emission economy positively. This will improve the creation of new jobs and reduce the emissions of harmful substances to the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Miscanthus is resistant to dry, frosty winters in Poland and most European Union countries. Miscanthus gives higher yields compared to native species. Farmers can produce Miscanthus pellets after drying it for their own heating purposes. From the third year, the most efficient plant development begins, resulting in a yield of 25–30 tons of dry matter from an area of 1 hectare. Laboratory scale tests were carried out on the processes of drying, compacting, and torrefaction of this biomass type. The analysis of the drying process was conducted at three temperature levels of the drying agent (60, 100, and 140 °C). Compaction on a hydraulic press was carried out in the pressure range characteristic of a pressure agglomeration (130.8–457.8 MPa) at different moisture contents of the raw material (0.5% and 10%). The main interest in this part was to assess the influence of drying temperature, moisture content, and compaction pressure on the specific densities (DE) and the mechanical durability of the pellets (DU). In the next step, laboratory analyses of the torrefaction process were carried out, initially using the Thermogravimetric Analysis TGA and Differential Scaning Calorimeter DSC techniques (to assess activation energy (EA)), followed by a flow reactor operating at five temperature levels (225, 250, 275, 300, and 525 °C). A SEM analysis of Miscanthus after torrefaction processes at three different temperatures was performed. Both the parameters of biochar (proximate and ultimate analysis) and the quality of the torgas (volatile organic content (VOC)) were analyzed. The results show that both drying temperature and moisture level will affect the quality of the pellets. Analysis of the torrefaction process shows clearly that the optimum process temperature would be around 300–340 °C from a mass loss ratio and economical perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy transition in the European Union (EU) is strongly related to public support from structural funds which enable member states to create new and renovate existing renewable energy source (RES) installations. However, in order to maximize benefits of these investments it is crucial to consider where RES funds are allocated, how it corresponds with RES potential in specific locations, and how future implementation of energy policies can be improved. In this study, RES development projects supported by EU funds, implemented in the period 2004–2019 in Poland, were analyzed in relation to solar, wind and biomass energy potential. The study was conducted with the use of agglomeration method and k-mean method to define clusters of local administrative units characterized by similar features of RES funds absorption and renewable energy production potential. The results obtained show that in the case of all energy sources there is no correlation between high RES funds absorption and energy production potential. The final conclusion of the research is that in order to boost energy transformation into more sustainable solutions, renewable energy production potential should be considered as a factor to allocate public financial support for future energy policy implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present pilot study examined the potential of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) as an energy source. The fresh matter of whole tobacco plants, the yield of dry matter of stems and leaves, as well as the higher heating value and methane production potential from tobacco biomass were determined. The yield of tobacco leaves was on average 4.69 Mg ha−1 (dry matter) and 76.90 GJ ha−1 yr−1 (biomass energy yield). Tobacco stems yielded on average 8.55 Mg ha−1 and 150.69 GJ ha−1 yr−1, while yields of whole tobacco crops were (on average) 13.24 Mg ha−1 and 227.59 GJ ha−1 yr−1. Methane potential of tobacco plants was (on average) 248 Nm3 Mg−1 VS (volatile solids). The tobacco plants tested in the study could be used as energy crops as their dry matter and energy yields are similar to those of the most popular energy crops being currently used in biomass production in Poland and the European Union. Nevertheless, further studies to choose the Nicotiana species and varieties most suitable for energy production and to assess the cost-effectiveness of tobacco biomass production are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Willow biomass is used as a bioenergy source in various conversion technologies. It is noteworthy that apart from the beneficial environmental impact of a willow plantation, the biomass quality is also very important as it has an impact on the effectiveness of its use and emissions produced in various bioenergy technologies. Therefore, this study analysed the thermophysical properties and elemental composition of 15 genotypes of willow biomass from two plantations situated in the north of Poland, harvested in two consecutive three-year rotations. The differences in the moisture content, ash content and the lower heating value were mainly determined by the genotype, i.e., by genetic factors. In contrast, the content of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and hydrogen was determined by the location (environmental factors), but also by the genotype, and by a combination of these factors. The following were the mean levels of the willow biomass characteristics, regardless of the location, genotype and harvest rotation: 48.9% moisture content, 1.26% d.m. ash content, 19.4% d.m. fixed carbon, 79.4% d.m. volatile matter, 19.53 MJ kg−1 d.m. higher heating value, 8.20 MJ kg−1 lower heating value, 52.90% d.m. carbon, 6.23% d.m. hydrogen, 0.032% d.m. sulphur, 0.42% d.m. nitrogen. The present research has shown that the selection of the willow genotype is important for the quality of biomass as energy feedstock. However, plantation location, as well as successive harvest rotations, can have a significant impact on the biomass elemental composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biomass has been demonstrated as a capable source of energy to fulfill the increasing demand for clean energy sources which could last a long time. Replacing fossil fuels with biomass-based ones can potentially lead to a reduction of carbon emissions, which is the main target of the EU climate strategy. Based on RED II (revised Renewable Energy Directive 2018/2001/EU) and the European Green Deal, biomass is a promising energy source for achieving carbon neutrality in the future. However, the sustainable potential of biomass resources in the forthcoming decades is still a matter of question. This review aims at estimating the availability of biomass for energy reasons in the EU, and to evaluate its potential to meet the coal power plant capacity of the main lignite-producer countries, including Germany, Poland and Greece. Plants in line with the sustainability criteria of RED II have been selected for the preliminary estimations concerning their full conversion to the biomass power concept. Furthermore, the various barriers to biomass utilization are highlighted, such as the stranded asset risk of a future coal phase-out scenario, biomass supply chain challenges, biomass availability in main lignite-producer EU countries, the existing full conversion technologies, and biomass cost. A variety of challenges in the scenario of lignite substitution with biomass in a plant are investigated in a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis. Technological risks and issues should be tackled in order to achieve the coal phase-out EU goal, mainly with regard to the supply chain of biomass. In this direction, the development of logistics centers for the centralized handling of biomass is strongly recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world's economic development depends on access to cheap energy sources. So far, energy has been obtained mainly from conventional sources like coal, gas and oil. Negative climate changes related to the high emissions of the economy based on the combustion of hydrocarbons and the growing public awareness have made it necessary to look for new ecological energy sources. This condition can be met by renewable energy sources. Both social pressure and international activities force changes in the structure of sources from which energy is produced. This also applies to the European Union countries, including Poland. There are no scientific studies in the area of forecasting energy production from renewable energy sources for Poland. Therefore, it is reasonable to investigate this subject since such a forecast can have a significant impact on investment decisions in the energy sector. At the same time, it must be as reliable as possible. That is why a modern method was used for this purpose, which undoubtedly involves artificial neural networks. The following article presents the results of the analysis of energy production from renewable energy sources in Poland and the forecasts for this production until 2025. Artificial neural networks were used to make the forecast. The analysis covered eight main sources from which this energy is produced in Poland. Based on the production volume since 1990, predicted volumes of renewable energy sources until 2025 were determined. These forecasts were prepared for all studied renewable energy sources. Renewable energy production plans and their share in total energy consumption in Poland were also examined and included in climate plans. The research was carried out using artificial neural networks. The results should be an important source of information on the effects of implementing climate policies in Poland. They should also be utilized to develop action plans to achieve the objectives of the European Green Deal strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioenergy plays a major role as a renewable energy source in the European Union. Solid biomass is derived mainly as wood from forests and wood processing plants. Willow plantations set up on marginal lands can be a supplementary source of wood for energy generation. This study aimed to determine the energy value of yield and the thermophysical properties and elemental composition of the biomass of 7-year rotation willow harvested on marginal soil. Three varieties and three clones were cultivated in the Eko-Salix system on three marginal soils in northern Poland: riparian, alluvial soil, classified as heavy complete humic alluvial soil (Obory); organic, peat–muck soil formed from peat (Kocibórz); very heavy mineral clay soil (Leginy). Favourable conditions for obtaining high energy value biomass were at Kocibórz and Obory with a high groundwater level. The energy value of biomass at Leginy was lower than at Kocibórz and Obory (by 33% and 26%, respectively). The Ekotur variety had the significantly highest yield energy value (217 GJ ha−1 year−1) among the varieties and clones under study. This feature at Kocibórz and Obory was 288 and 225 GJ ha−1 year−1, respectively, and 139 GJ ha−1 year−1 at Leginy. Moreover, the biomass of this variety contained less ash (1.1% d.m.), sulphur (0.03% d.m.) and nitrogen (0.28% d.m.), which is beneficial from the energy-use perspective. Notably, the yield energy value of the UWM 095 clone biomass was also high (167 GJ ha−1 year−1). This study showed that willow grown in the Eco-Salix system can be a significant source of energy contained in good-quality woody biomass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioenergy accounts for 61.7% of all renewable energy sources, with solid fuels accounting for 43% of this amount. Poplar plantations can deliver woody biomass for energy purposes. A field experiment with poplar was located in the north-east of Poland on good quality soil formed from medium loam. The study aimed to determine the yield, the energy value of the yield and the thermophysical properties and elemental composition of the biomass of four poplar clones harvested in two consecutive 4-year harvest rotations. The highest biomass energy value was determined in the UWM 2 clone in the second harvest rotation (231 GJ ha−1·year−1). This value was 27–47% lower for the other clones. The biomass quality showed that poplar wood contained high levels of moisture and low levels of ash, sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine. This indicates that poplar can be grown in the north-east of Poland and that it gives a yield with a high energy value and beneficial biomass properties from the energy generation perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]