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Due to an urgent need to reduce the fast-progressing climate changes, a rapid, standardized and replicable solution for the infrastructure restructuring of the heat demand coverage of buildings at the district and city levels must be developed. As more and more communities in Europe, especially in Germany, are obligated to have plans for coverage of the heat demand, city planners and energy agencies seek a tool that will help them to design the first drafts of heating network routes, which can supply whole districts and cities with renewable energy. ArcGIS Pro Tools like Least-Cost-Path Analysis (LCPA) and Closest Facility (CF) allow us to find the shortest and "cheapest" way between the heat source and heat consumers in the analyzed areas. Starting from the community level, through the district, county, voivodeship and whole-country levels, the replication of the methods for generating district heating (DH) network infrastructure can be achieved. The proposed LCPA- and CF-based methods help to design the most suitable and efficient DH networks in the analyzed areas. As only a few open-source data inputs, like street networks and building footprints, are needed, the methods can be implemented in all communities in the country of Poland. In this paper, one example of one community in Wroclaw county, called Siechnice, and its surroundings is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme precipitation of a minimum daily value of >30 mm often initiates natural hazards such as floods, which in turn may not only lead to property damage but also present a danger to people's health and lives. This paper mainly focuses on examining the trends and frequency of extreme daily precipitation (EDPr) in Poland. Also, it determines natural risk zones caused by EDPr of >30 mm, >50 mm, >70 mm, and >100 mm. In Poland, a significant positive trend was found for EDPr > 30 mm, >50 mm, and >70 mm in September, and for EDPr >100 mm in May. The most frequently recorded EDPr in Poland was >30 mm, the frequency of which ranged from 0.04% in February to nearly 3% in July. EDPr of >100 mm was recorded in 4 months, from May to August. An increase in the frequency of monthly EDPr in Poland occurred mainly in the southwestern and western parts. In Poland, three hazard zones of various frequencies of EDPr events were determined. In Zone III, which is in the southwestern and southern parts of the country, EDPr events occurred far more often than in Zone I; on average, four times more in the spring–summer season and slightly more than five times more in the autumn–winter season. The obtained results may help in the building of modern management and monitoring systems for the prevention of natural hazards caused by extreme precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to assess the correlation of groundwater level changes (or groundwater level anomalies (GWLA)) obtained from direct measurements in wells with groundwater storage anomalies (GWSA) calculated using Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) products and Global Land Data Assimilation Systems (GLDAS) models across different climate zones, from temperate Poland to Arctic Sweden. We recognize that such validation studies are needed to increase the understanding of the spatio-temporal limits of remote sensing model applicability, not least in data-scarce sub-Arctic and Arctic environments where processes are complex due to the impacts of snow and (perma) frost. Results for temperate climates in Poland and southern Sweden show that, whereas one of the models (JPL_NOAH_GWSA) failed due to water balance term overestimation, the other model (CSR_CLM_GWSA) produced excellent results of monthly groundwater dynamics when compared with the observations in 387 groundwater wells in the region during 2003–2022 (cross-correlation coefficient of 0.8). However, for the sub-Arctic and Arctic northern Sweden, the model suitable for other regions failed to reproduce typical northern groundwater regimes (of the region's 85 wells), where winter levels decrease due to the blocking effect of ground frost on groundwater recharge. This suggests, more generally, that conventional methods for deriving GWSA and its seasonality ceases to be reliable in the presence of considerably infiltration-blocking ground frost and permafrost (whereas snow storage modules perform well), which hence need further attention in future research. Regarding long-term groundwater level trends, remote sensing results for southern Sweden show increasing levels, in contrast with observed unchanged to decreasing (~10 mm/a) levels, which may not necessarily be due to errors in the remote sensing model but may rather emphasize impacts of anthropogenic pressures, which are higher near the observation wells that are often located in eskers used for water supply. For sub-Arctic and Arctic Sweden, the (relatively uncertain) trend of the remote sensing results nevertheless agrees reasonably well with the groundwater well observations that show increasing groundwater levels of up to ~14 mm/a, which, e.g., is consistent with reported trends of large Siberian river basins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to assess the level of credit risk (from the perspective of default risk) among Polish households associated with the physical risks of climate change. In order to determine the potential impact of the physical risk of climate change on household credit risk, we conducted CAWI interviews with 1,006 borrowers residing in different Polish voivodeships (to account for heterogeneity of credit exposures to extreme weather events). According to these respondents, wildfires and storms in Poland are the greatest source of physical risk of climate change. In the event of a wildfire or storm, approximately 13% of borrowers would not be able to repay their loans while not being insured, which potentially increases banks' credit risk and exposes banks to losses. However, we find that households underestimate the credit risk that could arise from a drought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Research Papers of the Wroclaw University of Economics / Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wroclawiu is the property of Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny we Wroclawiu and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The hydrological assessment of the Vistula River basin in the near future will be a key element in the development of strategies to adapt agriculture to climate change. The Vistula River basin covers 61% of Poland's area (190,062 km2) and is mainly used for agricultural production. The aim of this study is to assess the water balance of the Vistula River basin from the perspective of 2050 based on the analysis of two climate scenarios, RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, and the three climate models ICHEC-EC-EARTH_KNMI-RACMO22E (A), ICHEC-EC-EARTH_DMI-HIRHAM5 (B), and ICHEC-EC-EARTH_SMHI-RCA4 (C). This paper presents the steps in the development of the SWAT model and the results of the hydrological analysis of the Vistula catchment. Calibration and validation of the model were carried out using the SUFI-2 algorithm in the SWAT-CUP programme for 2013–2018. The data used to calibrate the SWAT model are monthly flow measurements [m3/s] from the measurement station in Tczew, located near the estuary of the Vistula basin to the Baltic Sea. The summary result of the work is the results of modelling the flow of the Vistula River catchment for different climate scenarios in the 2020–2050 perspective. The average annual precipitation for all projections in 2021–2030, 2031–2040, and 2041–2050 will be higher by up to 22% (763 mm) (RCP 8.5.C for 2041–2050) compared to the 2013–2018 simulation years (624 mm). The average annual temperature for most climate projections for 2021–2030 will fall to as low as 8.7 °C (RCP 4.5.B) compared to the 2013–2018 simulation period (9.2 °C). In contrast, for all projections in 2031–2040 and 2041–2050, the average annual temperature will increase to as much as 10.3 °C (RCP 8.5.C). The simulation results for the climate projections (2020–2050) indicate that there are no clear trends of change in the water management of the Vistula River basin for the coming decades. According to scenarios RCP 4.5.A, RCP 8.5.A, and RCP 8.5.B, the annual sums of potential evapotranspiration show a slight downward trend. On the other hand, for the RCP 8.5.C and RCP 4.5.C projections and the climate change scenario RCP 4.5.B, the results obtained show a slight upward trend in the annual sum of potential evapotranspiration. For the overall evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration assessment for all climate projections analysed, the annual evapotranspiration total shows a clear increase compared to the 2013–2018 baseline period. The average annual actual evapotranspiration for all projections in 2021–2030, 2031–2040, and 2041–2050 will increase up to 467 mm (RCP 4.5.A—2021–2030) compared to the 2013–2018 simulation period of 401 mm. The average annual potential evapotranspiration for all projections in 2021–2030, 2031–2040, and 2041–2050 will increase up to 755 mm (RCP 8.5.C—2031–2040) compared to the 2013–2018 simulation period—616 mm. The analysis of the total runoff in all climate models for the RCP 4.5 scenario shows that the annual average total runoff tends to decrease. The results of the simulations carried out for the RCP 8.5 scenario, which are generally characterised by an increase in total runoff in subsequent years, are different. When analysing annual total runoff on a regional basis, it appears that for most of the climate projections analysed (except for the RCP 8.5.A scenario), annual runoff will be lower, especially in the lowlands in the central part of the Vistula basin. In regions where the increase in precipitation is greatest in the north-western and southern basins, higher total runoff should be expected. The analysis of the total runoff in all climate models for the RCP 4.5 scenario shows that the annual average total runoff tends to decrease. The results of the simulations carried out for the RCP 8.5 scenario, which are generally characterised by an increase in total runoff in subsequent years, are different. When analysing annual total runoff on a regional basis, it appears that for most of the climate projections analysed (except for the RCP 8.5.A scenario), annual runoff will be lower, especially in the lowlands in the central part of the Vistula basin. In regions where the increase in precipitation is greatest in the north-western and southern basins, higher total runoff should be expected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water temperature in lakes is their basic property that determines many processes. Changes in average values are thoroughly investigated using a long-term approach. Knowledge of extreme situations such as temperature minimums is still insufficient. This paper analyses changes in the minimum temperature in 10 lakes in Poland in the period 1972–2021. The obtained results show variability over the course of the parameter, both at the annual and monthly scale. In the first case, half of the analysed set showed statistically significant increasing trends (on average 0.10 °C per decade). In the latter case, the greatest changes occurred in the months of the warm half-year (on average 0.57 °C per decade). The reported situation is caused by the individual conditions of particular lakes, i.e., their location, morphometric parameters, or the dynamics of the occurrence of ice phenomena. A successive increase in the minimum temperature in lakes has its consequences for biotic and abiotic processes. Exceeding specific thresholds results in the evident transformation of these ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meteorological drought (MDr) causes considerable economic losses in many countries, including in relation to agriculture. To examine the diversity of seasonal meteorological drought in Poland, the study uses monthly precipitation sums in the period from March to November, collected from 74 ground-based meteorological stations in 1951–2020. The paper defines meteorological drought on the basis of the standardized precipitation index in three seasons (SPI-3) and differentiates three degrees of drought intensity: extreme, severe and moderate. The study also calculates the size of Poland's area affected by meteorological drought (AAMDr) and determines the relationship between AAMDr and SPI-3. MDr in Poland occurred more frequently in spring and autumn (every 4–5 years) than in summer (every 7 years). In the areas affected by extreme drought, precipitation was below the average, mainly ≤50% of the climatic norm, and air temperature values were below or above the average of the climatic norm, mainly ranging from −1.0 to 1.0 °C. A significant negative correlation between AAMDr and SPI-3 indices was found. The obtained results could be useful for managing climatic risk and developing regional and local agriculture adaptation plans aimed at mitigating the effects of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jaskinia Lodowa w Ciemniaku (Ice Cave in Ciemniak), in the Tatra Mountains (Tatry), is believed to host the largest subterranean ice mass in Poland. It has been known for over a century, however, the onset of its scientific investigations dates back to 1922, when Tadeusz and Stefan Zwoliński mapped it. Since then, it has become one of the best-known caves in Poland. It was described in over a hundred scientific and popular science papers. They include findings of international importance, e.g. works related to radioisotopes, ice-mass balance and age. However, some of the questions asked a century ago are still partly unanswered. One may wonder if they will be delivered before climate warming causes the largest 'cave glacier' in Poland to disappear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an interpretation of sedimentologic, paleomagnetic, and geochemical data collected in the Upper Kimmeridgian-Valanginian carbonates of the Giewont series (Giewont and Mały Giewont sections, High-Tatric succession, Western Tatra Mountains, Poland). The studied succession provides insight into the sedimentary conditions prevailing in the South Tatric Ridge (Tatricum), a submarine elevation located between the Zliechov Basin (Fatricum) and the Vahic (=South Penninic) Ocean. The sedimentary sequence includes micrites, pseudonodular limestones, cyanoid packstones, lithoclastic packstone, and encrinites. The results are discussed with regards to their significance for detrital input, paleoclimate, and paleoproductivity, which in turn are considered in the context of both local and regional paleoenvironmental trends and events. The greatest depositional depths during the latest Kimmeridgian-earliest Tithonian are documented by the occurrence of pseudonodular limestones. A Tithonian shallowing trend is demonstrated via the increasing size and roundness of cyanoids, while the final (1)emergence and erosion in the South Tatric Ridge is documented by earliest Cretaceous disconformities. This process might have been related to both falling sea-level during the major eustatic regressive cycle and tectonic uplift caused by the mutually related (re)activation in the Neotethyan Collision Belt and rifting in the Ligurian-Penninic-Vahic Oceans. The highest lithogenic influx (although still low; max 0.5% of Al content) during the Late Kimmeridgian is considered as associated with relatively humid climate conditions, whereas a subsequent decreasing trend is thought to result from aridification during the latest Kimmeridgian-earliest Tithonian. Ultimately, deposition in the High-Tatric zone was affected by both large-scale environmental perturbations characteristic of the latest Jurassic (climate changes, variations in seawater pH, monsoonal upwelling, lithogenic input, etc.), as well as local sedimentary controls, predominantly the oxygenation state of bottom waters and tectonic movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of climate change on forest condition is noticeable. Forest ecosystem stress caused by climate change has already been manifested in several parts of Europe, including Poland. Thus, the main objective of this paper is to investigate for the entire area of Poland a long‐term trend and variability of forest greenness expressed as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), derived from two decades (2002–2021) of remote sensing Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. In the next step, selected meteorological elements – temperature (T), precipitation (P) and evapotranspiration (ETo), derived from ERA5‐Land reanalysis—were used to determine the influence of climatic conditions on the variability of NDVI in forests. The study documents the general greening of forests in Poland in 2002–2021. The greening is mostly visible in central‐eastern Poland, where the annual mean NDVI increased by 0.030 in 20 years, while it is weaker in the Baltic coast and in the southern edges of Poland (increase by 0.009 in 20 years). Overall, the positive, statistically significant trends in annual NDVI prevail over the negative, statistically significant trends and account for 32.5% of forest area, whereas the negative trends account for 3.9%. The study indicates an overall moderate impact of meteorological elements on variability of NDVI in forests in Poland. The most important factors affecting forest condition are P and ETo. The strongest correlations between NDVI and P and ETo reach 0.55 and are located in central Poland, in the form of a belt from western to eastern borders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floods are the main natural disaster in Poland, and the risk of both fluvial and pluvial floods is serious in the country. Pluvial floods are on the rise in the changing climate, particularly in increasingly sealed urbanized areas. In this paper, we examine the changes in flood risk in Poland, discussing the mechanisms, observations, projections and variability. Next, we discuss flood risk management in the country, including specific issues related to urban and rural areas and the synergies between flood and drought risk reduction measures. We identify and assess the weaknesses of the existing flood risk management plans in Poland for the first planning period 2016–2021 and for the second planning period 2022–2027. We find the level of implementation of plans in the former period to be very low. Many planned measures do not have much to do with flood risk reduction but are often linked to other objectives, such as inland navigation. The plans contain numerous small measures, which come across as inapt and economically ineffective solutions. We specify policy-relevant recommendations for necessary and urgent actions, which, if undertaken, could considerably reduce flood risk. We also sketch the way ahead for flood risk management in Poland within the timeframe of the implementation of plans for 2022–2027 and the next regular update of plans for 2028–2033. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Huge amounts of carbon being sequestered in forest ecosystems make them an important land carbon sink at the global scale. Their ability to withdraw carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere, whose concentration is gradually increasing due to anthropogenic emissions, renders them important natural climate-mitigation solutions. The urgent need for transition from high to zero net emission on country, continental, and global scales, to slow down the warming to an acceptable level, calls for the analysis of different economic sectors' roles in reaching that ambitious goal. Here, we examine changes in CO 2 emission and sequestration rates during recent decades focusing on the coal-dominated energy sector and Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) as well as wood production at the country level. The main purpose of the presented study is to examine the potential of storing carbon in standing forest biomass and wood products in Poland as well as the impact of disturbances. The ratio of LULUCF absorption of CO 2 to its emission in Poland has ranged from about 1% in 1992 to over 15% in 2005. From a climate-change mitigation point of view, the main challenge is how to maximize the rate and the duration of CO 2 withdrawal from the atmosphere by its storage in forest biomass and wood products. Enhancing carbon sequestration and storage in forest biomass, via sustainable and smart forestry, is considered to be a nature-based climate solution. However, not only forests but also wood-processing industries should be included as important contributors to climate-change mitigation, since harvested wood products substitute materials like concrete, metal, and plastic, which have a higher carbon footprint. The energy perspective of the paper embraces two aspects. First, CO 2 sequestration in forests and subsequently in harvested wood products, is an effective strategy to offset a part of national CO 2 emissions, resulting largely from fossil fuel burning for energy-production purposes. Second, wood as biomass is a renewable energy source itself, which played an important role in sustaining energy security for many individual citizens of Poland during the unusual conditions of winter 2022/2023, with a scarce coal supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae is the property of Uniwerystet Kardynala Stefana Wyznskiege w Warzawie and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Acta Scientiarum Polonorum. Formatio Circumiectus is the property of Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rolniczego im. Hugona Kollataja w Krakowie and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Currently, climate change is considered as an important factor affecting nutrient loads introduced through riverine systems into the Baltic Sea. Although the prospect of a large increase in pollution has long seemed very real, it still does not translate into planning of effective remedial actions. One of the factors limiting the development of such activities is the scale of simulations, focusing generally on catchment outlet profiles. To fill this gap and enable a step forward in understanding responses toward future predictions in a higher resolution scale (subcatchment), we assessed nutrient load contribution using calculation profiles localized along a main watercourse and its tributaries. To track spatial and seasonal changes of total nitrogen and phosphorus for the Wełna River (central Poland), we used climate change data and the SWAT model. Having at our disposal a catchment model with a good performance we could follow not only total load changes in particular subcatchments, but also track localization of the pollution sources and their direct impact on load estimations. Our results showed an increase of the loads, especially from the agricultural land use type, up to 34% for TN and 85% for TP, in the most extreme scenario. Moreover, forest areas have been noted as highly reactive to climate change, and through their localisation are able to distinctly alter nutrient outflow. Finally, the contribution of urban areas should be further investigated since the dynamics of nitrogen and phosphorus release from impervious surfaces is noticeably different here than from the other diffuse sources. Plain Language Summary: This paper describes how climate change will affect the amount of nutrients in a small river catchment in the Baltic Sea region. While it is known that climate change can increase nutrient loads, effective actions to prevent them are still lacking. The "big picture" based on a whole catchment is still poor in terms of finding nutrient vulnerable areas. In this research, we looked at a more detailed scale to see where the nutrients are coming from and how they are changing over time. We used computer modeling to show that the amount of nutrients coming from agriculture, forests, and city areas will increase due to climate change. Overall, the amount of nitrogen can raise by 34% and the amount of phosphorus by 85%. Our results can be the basis for making decisions regarding actions aimed at improving the condition of surface waters and counteracting climate change effects. Key Points: Spatio‐temporal trends of nutrient loads have been tracked in a Baltic Sea region catchment under climate change scenariosClimate change suggests a potential load increase from the whole catchment by 34% for total nitrogen and 85% for total phosphorusOutputs from individual nutrient sources could grow by even 187% for total nitrogen and 302% for total phosphorus [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities have always been places that generate problems, but also places where solutions are born. In recent years, cities have become a testing ground for finding and testing solutions to overcome the climate crisis. The subject of the paper is Nature-based Solutions (NbSs) that strengthen the resilience to climate change, influence urban spaces, and improve the quality of life of residents. The study focusses on the identification of NbSs, the diagnosis of its participation in local adaptation activities, and a comparative analysis of the activities planned and implemented in 44 large Polish cities in 2017–2023. The authors analyse data from 44 Polish cities, based on the types of NbSs implemented in European cities that carried out the URBAN GreenUP project. The results of the study show that Polish cities, while introducing sustainable urban lifestyles through NbSs, do not take advantage of all the opportunities inherent in these solutions. They focus on greening urban spaces and implement water interventions and singular green infrastructure measures to a lesser extent. There is negligible use of innovative and energy-using activities. The quantitative data obtained can be used to identify the gaps and potentials in the use of nature-based solutions in the adaptation of Polish cities to climate change and energy transformation. The aim of this work is also to identify recommendations to incorporate NbSs into urban adaptation policies in Poland. The authors conclude that the research conducted can serve to improve the knowledge on the links between NbS planning in adaptation activities and their implementation in urban spaces. An awareness of NbS gaps can influence the intensification of research on the implementation of innovative adaptation solutions, including energy-based solutions. The results obtained can also contribute to a better organisation of urban policies that aim to increase the resilience of cities to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasingly severe effects of climate change have resulted in a shift in countries' approach to climate policy. From an initial focus on mitigation efforts, adaptation to climate change is now given equal importance. Adaptation policies in individual countries provide for different sets of instruments owing to different natural conditions and climate change impacts and their resulting problems as well as different approaches related to the sociopolitical characteristics of the country. In the paper, we identify and classify adaptation policy instruments and then look for the differences and similarities in the adaptation instrument mixes included in the national adaptation strategic documents of selected European countries. We focused on Western European (WE) and Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries, as the latter are underrepresented in studies on adaptation policies. Based on text-mining methods, i.e., categorisation of policy instruments using a set of criteria and clustering, we looked for similarities and differences between the adaptation instrument mixes in the chosen European countries. We found similarities between the two CEE countries studied—Poland and Lithuania. These countries are also different from WE countries in this regard. The results indicate that CEE countries have a sectoral rather than systemic approach to adaptation policy, and instruments from the management sphere are less prominent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mountains are one of the most sensitive regions in terms of climate changes. This also concerns water balance, which plays an important role, especially in the context of the ecological state. Furthermore, numerous studies indicate the atmospheric circulation as one of the crucial factors affecting climate conditions. Therefore, the goal of the paper is to examine the impact of the atmospheric circulation on the changes in climate water balance (CWB) in the Sudetes Mountains and their foreland. The analysis was carried out based on the 1981–2020 data derived from the Polish and Czech meteorological stations. The impact of the circulation factor was examined using the Lityński classification, while the calculation of evapotranspiration based on the Penman–Monteith equation. The results showed that despite positive trends for evapotranspiration, the changes in CWB in 1981–2020 were generally statistically insignificant. The only exception was the increase in CWB under the eastern circulation and its negative tendency for the western and southern sectors for some of the stations. This corresponds to the changes in the frequency of the circulation types. The results of the study can be used in further research on water balance in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the estimated changes in the soil water content, the total runoff, the sediment yield and the actual evapotranspiration for the small Bystra catchment in the east of Poland. The findings are based on the results of three simulations covering the years of 2041–2050. The simulations were based on a calibrated and validated SWAT model (2010–2017). The first variant covers just the climate change and the existing structure of soil cultivation for the three regional climate models supported by the EC-EARTH global climate model in the emission scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. Variants two and three are based on the first variant in terms of the changing climate. The second variant, however, involves placing a pond in each farm in the catchment, while the third variant involves designing huge reservoirs as a result of land consolidation. Variants two and three occur in five adaptation scenarios each. The first adaptation scenario (V2.1 and V3.1) involves only increasing the number of ponds on the farm or increasing the number of reservoirs for non-irrigated arable land crops, i.e., WWHT (winter cereals), BARL (spring cereals), CANP (rapeseed) and CRDY (other crops). The second adaptation scenario (V2.2 and V3.2) involves growing vegetables without irrigation (instead of cereals). The third adaptation scenario (V2.3 and V3.3) involves growing vegetables with irrigation (instead of cereals). The fourth adaptation scenario (V2.4 and V3.4) involves partial cultivation of vegetables and cereals. The fifth adaptation scenario (V2.5 and V3.5) involves partial cultivation of orchards and cereals. The adaptation scenarios of the irrigation of vegetables from deep water-bearing layers (second variant) or reservoirs (third variant) contribute to the increase in water content in the soil, especially in summer, in comparison with the adaptation scenarios for vegetable cultivation without irrigation. What is more, the actual evapotranspiration was higher in the adaptation scenarios involving irrigation than in scenarios without irrigation. It is known that the changes in water content in soil and the intensification of water erosion are gravely affected by modifications in crops and soil cultivation. A change from cereal cultivation to irrigated vegetable cultivation or orchards increased the water content in the soil in most climatic projections. However, the increase in the number of ponds in the second variant had little impact on the soil water content, actual evapotranspiration and overall runoff, while the erosion loss decreased. With the lower precipitation levels in the years 2041–2050 relative to 2010–2017, as presented in the emissive scenario RCP 4.5, the soil water content decreases by up to 14% for most variants. Total runoff for most variants will also be lower by 4–35%. The percentage change in sediment yield will fluctuate between −86% and 116%. On the other hand, the actual evapotranspiration for most variants will be higher. With higher precipitation levels in the years 2041–2050 relative to 2010–2017, as presented in the emissive scenario RCP 8.5, the soil water content changes slightly from −7% to +3%. Total runoff for most variants will also be higher by as much as 43%. Sediment yield for most scenarios may increase by 226%. The actual evapotranspiration for most variants will also be higher. Irrigation variants tend to increase soil available water while increasing evapotranspiration and total outflow in the catchment as compared to non-irrigated LULC. The largest increase in the soil water content is observed in most irrigation variants for RCP 4.5 (annual average 316–319 mm) (V2.3-V2.5, V3.2, and V3.3) and RCP 8.5 (annual average 326–327 mm) (V2.3-V2.5 and V3.3) as compared to V1 (BaU) (315 mm–RCP 4.5 and 324 mm–RCP 8.5) for the years 2041–2050. On the other hand, the lowest increase in soil water content is observed in the V3.5 variant, with an annual average of 292 mm for RCP 4.5 and an annual average of 311 mm for RCP 8.5. Thus, for future climate change scenarios, irrigation with water reservoirs (ponds and storage reservoirs) should be considered. The study proves the rationale behind building ponds in small catchments in order to increase water resources in a landscape and also to counteract adverse effects of climate changes, i.e., sediment outflow and surface water erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the impact of the weather on inland navigation conditions. Each mode of transportation depends on the weather, but inland navigation is the one most affected by it. Inland navigation is strongly dependent on the water level in a river bed, which is a result of weather conditions. In Poland the depth of inland waterways is relatively low, but the biggest consideration is the weather which results in the variability of this level. The variability of hydrotechnical conditions results in problems with planning for transportation. It is widely known that water is one of the most important factors in the hydrotechnical conditions of inland navigation and it is directly correlated with the weather. In this paper the authors present the impact of temperature on the duration of the navigation season on the Border Oder, based on research conducted in the years from 2004 to 2018 and the authors also investigated important changes in the weather conditions during last few years. The results showed that the number of navigable days has dropped significantly over the investigated period as a result of changes in the climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the impact of flow changes in the Warta River and water management rules regarding the Jeziorsko dam reservoir on the energy production by the hydropower plant in the period 1995–2021. The Jeziorsko dam reservoir was built in 1986. It is the second largest dam reservoir in Poland in terms of surface area. In 1994, a hydropower plant with an installed capacity of 4.89 MW started operation. The study results show the average annual energy production from 1995 to 2021 at a level of 18,718 MWh. On the other hand, energy production largely changed from year to year, from 12,432 MWh (in 2019) to 26,916 MWh (in 2001). The droughts that have occurred in the Warta River basin over the past two decades have had a major impact on energy production. As a consequence of the drought, it was not possible to maintain the required water level in the reservoir. Moreover, a change in the rules for the reservoir's management that led to lower water levels in the reservoir by 1.5 m between April and June was important from the point of view of energy production. Improving the efficiency of energy production requires changing the rules of water management in the reservoir. More flexible reservoir operation schemes should be considered, including operational management based on meteorological and hydrological forecasts. Moreover, other criteria should also be considered, such as maintaining environmental flows, ensuring protection from flooding, and operating a nature reserve around the reservoir. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The progressing development of civilisation and climate change require access to an appropriate quantity of environmental resources. One of the key resources is water. Both its deficit and excess evidently affect human life. Control over water circulation is possible owing to water management, largely involving introduction of hydraulic structures. The paper analyses the effect of the Jeziorsko dam reservoir on the flows of the Warta River, the third largest river in Poland. It analyses water flows in the Warta River in the years 1993–2020 for hydrological stations above and below the reservoir. The conducted research showed that the construction of the Jeziorsko reservoir also substantially contributed to an increase in minimum flows and a decrease in maximum flows. Moreover, the simulation showed that in the case of abscence of the reservoir, the flows of the Warta River would be higher in the period from January to June, and in the period from July to October the opposite situation would occur. In November and December, the flows would be at a similar level. Results obtained in the study, show that hydraulic structures are an effective solution in the context of stabilisation of the hydrological situation in a given region, particularly in terms of hydrological lows occurring with increasing intensity mitigated on sections of rivers below the reservoirs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper discusses changes in the low-flow regime of rivers in Poland, resulting from climate change that occurred between 1987 and 1989. The low-flow variability of rivers was measured with the use of the number of days with low flows (NDLF) below a threshold value, which was adopted as the 0.1 (10%) percentile (Q10) from the set of daily flows recorded in the multi-annual period 1951–2020 at 140 water gauges on 83 rivers. The analysis of the course of climate change over Poland showed that it was caused by macro-circulation conditions, controlled by changes in the intensity of thermohaline circulation in the North Atlantic (NA THC). Climate change consisted of a sharp increase in sunshine duration and air temperature, and a decrease in relative humidity after 1988. Along with the lack of changes in precipitation totals, characterized by a strong yearly variability, and an increase in field evaporation, it led to noticeable changes in the water balance. As a result, in 1989–2020, there was a significant increase in NDFL detected in about 2/3 of the area of Poland. With the change in the NA THC phase and the macro-circulation conditions, there was also a change in the spatial distribution of areas drained by rivers with increased NDFL. In 1951–1988, these included the eastern parts of Poland, while after the climate change (1989–2020), its western and south-western parts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sustainable development of enterprises is based on three pillars: economic, social, and environmental. Sustainable development aims to limit climate change and its negative impact on the natural environment. The main aim of this paper is to assess the impact of selected energy economy factors (government expenditure, environmental taxes, outlays on renewable energy sources, prices of futures contracts for CO2 emissions, outlays on R&D, and the EU Emissions Trading System (ETSEU)) on the sustainable development of the energy sectors in Bulgaria, Czechia, Estonia, and Poland, from 2008 to 2022. We use the correlation coefficients, the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Vector Autoregressive (VAR) Models, and the simultaneous equation. The research results indicate a variation in the direction and strength of the influence of individual economic factors in the studied countries (p < 0.05). The results can support operational and strategic decisions sustaining the sustainable development of enterprises in the analyzed countries. The results indicate the need to reform selected economic factors, with an emphasis on the increased importance of environmental taxes and the reform of the EU ETS, which is a key tool for reducing greenhouse gas emissions cost-effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article, meant as the first in a series, tries to answer some questions around the future desired shape of the new Polish electro-energy mix in relation to the one described in the national energy policy document PEP 2040 (Energy Policy of Poland till 2040) and as compared with the targets set up in the newest UE legislative package, 'Fit-for-55'. In this article, I first present the rich overview of literature as well as economic theory behind the analysis of the energy transformation and energy-mix decarbonisation, in order to show how the energy mix should evolve in a way that will guarantee the biggest net gain to the society. Second, some comparable cost calculations on selected electro-energy sources, both LCOE (levelized cost of energy) and external costs are presented; these are modifications of my previous work as a co-author. Finally, the comparison of the 2040 electro-energy mix, as designed in the official governmental programme PEP 2040, with the two alternative scenarios, both of which exclude coal, and one also neglects the possibilities for nuclear energy to be included in the mix are presented. The alternative scenarios built into the paper are based on European Union (EU) plans to decarbonise Europe quickly. Recent geopolitical considerations related to the war in Ukraine, however, make it necessary to consider energy security as an important part of the plan. That would mean that nuclear energy would be a necessary component of the future mix in Poland. Security considerations are left to be analysed in the coming months, after a series of articles on lessons learnt by other developed countries in the process of making their energy-mix transformations and will complete the final recommendations for the future of the Polish energy mix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the paper is to analyze the spatial variability of precipitation in Poland in the years 1981–2010. The average annual rainfall was 607 mm. Precipitation in Poland is characterized by high spatial and temporal variability. The lowest annual precipitation was recorded in the central part of the country, where they equaled 500 mm. The highest annual precipitation totals were determined in the south, equaling 970 mm. The average precipitation in the summer half-year is 382 mm (63% of the annual total). On the basis of data from 53 climate stations, maps were made of the spatial distribution of precipitation for the period of the year and winter and summer half-year. The kriging method was used to map rainfall distribution in Poland. In the case study, cross-validation was used to compare the prediction performances of three periods. Kriging, with exponential type of semivariogram, gave the best performance in the statistical sense. Their application is justices especially in areas where landform is very complex. In accordance with the assumptions, the mean prediction error (ME), mean standardized prediction error (MSE), and root mean-square standardized prediction error (RMSSE) values are approximately zero, and root-mean-square prediction error (RMSE) and average standard error (ASE) reach values well below 100. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is widely known and accepted that the global climate is changing with unprecedented speed. Climate models project increasing temperatures and changes in precipitation regimes which will alter the frequency, magnitude, and geographic distribution of climate-related hazards including flood, drought and heat waves. In the mining industry, climate change impacts are an area of research around the world, mostly in relation to the mining industry in Australia and Canada, where mining policies and mitigation actions based on the results of this research were adopted and applied. In Poland, there is still a lack of research on how climate change, and especially extreme weather events, impacts mining activity. This impact may be of particular importance in Poland, where the mining industry is in the process of intensive transition. The paper presents an overview of hazardous events in mining in Poland that were related to extreme weather phenomena. The needs and recommended actions in the scope of mitigating the impact of future climate change on mining in all stages of its functioning were also indicated. The presented analyses and conclusions are the results of the first activities in the TEXMIN project: The impact of extreme weather events on mining activities, identifying the most important factors resulting from climate change impact on mining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the paper is to characterize the trends of sunshine duration (SDU) and air temperature in Poland, which may help understand the mechanism of contemporary climate change. The daily totals of SDU and daily data on air temperature from the years 1971-2020, from 25 synoptic stations in Poland are the basic source data. The series of records of the two variables showed that the points of change in the level of stabilization of the value of SDU and air temperature are close to each other, and confirm known in the literature "global dimming" and "global brightening" periods. The linear regression model confirmed that sunshine duration explains well the variability of, and increase in day-time air temperature in Poland in the warm part of the year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the results of the analysis of the declarations of the authorities of small and medium-sized cities in Poland regarding the need to implement adaptation measures to the effects of climate change, and an assessment of the adequacy of the planned activities in this area. As part of the study, Environmental Protection Programmes in 80 cities with a population of up to 100,000 inhabitants were analysed. In the beginning, the most important challenges that the effects of climate change pose for cities are discussed. Then the results of the research are described and discussed. The paper ends with a short summary. The obtained results are not unambiguous. On the one hand, it has been shown that the issues of environmental protection and adaptation to climate change are not among the most important priorities of the authorities of small and medium-sized cities, and the way of presenting the issue of adaptation in the analysed documents, concerning the threats caused by the effects of climate change, is not sufficient and adequate to the level of danger. On the other hand, the results show that the importance of this problem has been increasing in recent years and that the authorities of small and medium-sized towns more and more often declare the need and readiness to support adaptation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to analyze urban sensory gardens containing aromatic herbs in terms of the plants used in them. The analysis considered the impact of climate change, particularly of higher temperatures, which may affect the character of contemporary urban gardens. The study was planned primarily in the context of the gardens' therapeutic significance to their users. An important part of the work was to analyze how particular aromatic plants are perceived and received by the inhabitants, using the example of one of Poland's largest cities, Kraków, to assess whether they can have an impact on the inhabitants' positive memories and thus improve their well-being. Initially, the plant composition of gardens located in Poland that feature aromatic herbs was analyzed. This was followed by a survey and an analysis of therapeutic gardens using the Trojanowska method as modified by Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz et al. The plant composition analysis of sensory gardens featuring herbs demonstrated that vulnerable plants in the Central European climate are being introduced to urban sensory gardens. In terms of major aromatic plants, it was found that almost every respondent reported the existence of scents that had some form of essential significance associated with personal memories. Considering the important sensory impact of water elements in therapeutic gardens, as well as problems related to the acquisition of drinking water or water used in agriculture or horticulture, the paper also addresses this topic. It was found that the city dwellers who filled in the questionnaire strongly preferred the introduction of more ecological solutions in the gardens related to water use—to collect and use rainwater, e.g., for watering, instead of piped water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate-related changes have a severe impact on wetland ecosystems and pose a serious challenge for wetland-dependent animals as their preferred habitats decline, lose spatial continuity, and appear as isolated islands in the landscape. In this paper, we studied the effects of long-term habitat changes (drying out and fragmentation of wet non-forest habitats) on the genetic structure of the population of the root vole Microtus oeconomus, a species preferring moist habitats. We intended to check what barriers and what distances affected its genetic isolation on a local scale. The study was conducted in the area of Kampinoski National Park in central Poland (Europe). DNA variability of 218 root vole individuals was assessed by genotyping nine microsatellite loci. Despite its spatial fragmentation, the studied population did not seem to be highly structured, and isolation through distance was the main differentiating factor. Even a distance of several kilometres of unfavourable natural habitats and unfavourable terrain did not exclude the exchange of genes between subpopulations. Our results suggest that the genetic effects of the fragmentation of wetlands have been considerably compensated (delayed) due to the migratory abilities of this species. Our study does not provide clear results on the impact of anthropogenic barriers but suggests that such barriers may have a much stronger effect than natural barriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The variability of occurrence of snow cover and the impact of atmospheric circulation on the snow cover occurrence in the period 1966/1967–2019/2020 in Poznań (Poland) have been examined. The implementation of the primary study objective covers the comprehensive analysis of the winter snow and thermal conditions using various indicators. This paper is based on daily data from the years 1966–2020 concerning the winter period. Winters in Poznań are highly variable and differentiated, considering the duration of particular seasons, number of days with snow cover, mean snow cover thickness, winter snowiness coefficient, or winter severity index. Negative trends concerning days with snow cover total snow cover depth winter snowiness coefficient and winter severity index in Poznań prove statistically significant. A higher probability of occurrence of snow cover was determined during cyclonic than anticyclonic circulation. The westerly and northerly types especially favoured the occurrence of days with snow cover. The increase of snow cover was associated with the northerly inflow mainly. Westerly types of circulation caused the decrease of snow cover predominantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have demonstrated that plants are a very good indicator of global environmental variations. The responses of many plant species to climate change are confirmed by aerobiological research. This paper presents an analysis of many parameters of pollen seasons in the Amaranthaceae family based on measurements of pollen concentrations in atmospheric air. Pollen samples were collected with the volumetric method at a sampling site in Lublin (Poland) in 2001-2019. The obtained data were verified using statistical analyses. Moreover, the presence of pollenkitt on the pollen grain surface was examined in fresh anthers using scanning electron and light microscopes, since there are some difficulties in identification of Amaranthaceae pollen grains deposited on microscopic slides in aerobiological analysis. The pollen season in Amaranthaceae began on average on June 23 and ended on October 5, i.e. it lasted 105 days. The peak value and annual pollen sum were characterized by the highest variability in the study years in comparison with other season characteristics. The annual pollen sum was in the range from 183 to 725. Maximum concentrations were most often recorded in the second half of August, which is associated with the greatest risk of development of pollen allergy symptoms in sensitive subjects during this period. The results obtained in the 19-year study revealed that the pollen seasons began 14 days earlier. Similarly, the end of the season was accelerated by 24 days. The response of these plants to climate change also include the reduced pollen production by representatives of this family, which was manifested by a decrease in the annual sum of daily airborne pollen concentrations, on average by 35%, and a reduction in the maximum pollen concentration, on average by more than 60%. We found that temperature in May and June had an effect on pollen release, and relative air humidity in May influenced pollen concentrations. We noted significant similarities in the pollen release rate during the last 8 years of the study. The scanning electron microscopy examinations showed that the pollen grain surface in the representative of this family was covered completely or partially with pollenkitt. Hence, the apertures characteristic for pollen in this family were poorly visible. The presence of pollenkitt on the surface of these polyaperturate pollen grains may play an important role in preventing water loss during pollen migration in the air. Our research has demonstrated the response of plants flowering in summer to climate change. The results not only have practical importance for public health in the aspect of allergy risk but can also help to assess environmental changes., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The paper characterises the annual pattern and the long-term variability of the Tourism Climate Index (TCI) in Toruń in the years 1966-2020. In the annual variation, conditions for tourism and recreation were best from May to August. For the summer period (from June to August), the climatic conditions according to TCI were excellent, while for May they were assessed as very good. Meanwhile, the least favourable conditions for recreational and tourist activity occur in the winter months of January and December. In Toruń, there was a statistically significant increase of 0.9 pt/10yr in the annual average TCI value. An improvement in climatic conditions for humans was demonstrated for all seasons but was greatest in spring and autumn (respectively 1.6 and 1.0 TCI pt/10yr). Atmospheric circulation was also found to affect TCI. This was determined using a calendar of circulation types over central Poland, based on which indices of zonal, meridional and cyclonic circulation were used. The study has shown that anticyclonic circulation has the greatest impact on improving conditions for tourism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents an analysis of short-term changes in maximum air temperature values, understood as interdiurnal (T2-T1) temperature changes in Poland. It was calculated as the differences of the daily maximum air temperature from the multi-year period (1961- 2010), from 8 stations (Leba, Suwałki, Szczecin, Poznan, Warsaw, Włodawa, Wrocław and Krakow), which are representative of Polish regions. In most cases, these changes amount were no more than 2.0-3.0°C. However It was found that in extreme cases, day-to-day changes may have exceeded even 20.0°C. Accordingly in this paper, special attention was paid to the number of days with the abrupt increases and decreases in temperature, understood as the differences greater than or equal 8.0 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shaping the development policy of states, regions and cities, referring to broadly understood issues related to the climate change adaptation process, is connected with the necessity of creating new and constantly updated planning and strategic documents and adjusting their provisions to the current needs, global civilisation processes and challenges as well as regional and local specifics. One of the important elements of the adaptation policy is to take into account the problem of urbanised areas adaptation to climate change and management of the built and natural environment resources. The subject of this paper are the planning and strategic tools used in development policy to adapt urbanised areas to climate change. The aim is to indicate the possibilities and limitations of planning instruments in the context of adaptation to climate change and to indicate their coherence in the context of implementation activities. The research includes the planning and strategic instruments developed in the area of sustainable management of the built and natural environment in recent years in Poland, with particular reference to the example of the Metropolis GZM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the concept and deployment of the agro-hydro-meteorological monitoring system (abbrev. AgHMM) created for the purposes of operational planning of regulated drainage and irrigation on the scale of a drainage/irrigation system (INOMEL project). Monitoring system involved regular daily (weekly readings) measurements of agrometeorological and hydrological parameters in water courses at melioration object during vegetation seasons. The measurement results enable an assessment of the meteorological conditions, moisture changes in the 0-60 cm soil profile, fluctuations of groundwater levels at quarters and testing points, also water levels in ditches and at dam structures, and water flow in water courses. These data were supplemended by 7-day meteorological forecast parameter predictions, served as input data for a model of operational planning of drainage and subirrigation at the six melioration systems in Poland. In addition, it was carried out irregular remote sensing observations of plant condition, water consumption by plants and soil moisture levels using imagery taken by unmanned aerial vehicles and Sentinel’s satellites. All the collected data was used for support operational activities aimed at maintaining optimal soil moisture for plant growth and should to provide farmers with high and stable yields. An example of the practical operations using the AgHMM system in 2019 is shown on the basis of the subirrigation object at permanent grasslands located in central Poland called “Czarny Rów B1”. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant changes in climate variables in the last decades resulted in changes of perceived climate conditions. However, there are only few studies discussing long-lasting changes in bioclimatic conditions. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to present the temporal and spatial distribution of hazardous heat and cold stress conditions in different regions of Poland. Its focus is on long-lasting changes in such conditions in the period 1951–2018. To assess changes in hazardous thermal stress conditions, the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) was used. UTCI values at 12 UTC hour (respectively 1 pm winter time, 2 pm summer time) were calculated daily based on air temperature, relative humidity, total cloud cover and wind speed at 24 stations representing the whole area of Poland. We found that the greatest changes were observed in minimum (1.33 °C/10 years) and average (0.52 °C/10 years) UTCI values as well as in cold stress frequency (− 4.00 days per 10 years). The changes vary seasonally and regionally. The greatest increase in UTCImin and decrease in cold stress days were noted from November to March and had the highest values in north-east and east Poland, and also in the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains. The trends in maximum UTCI are much smaller and not always positive. The spatially averaged trend in UTCImax for Poland as a whole was 0.35 °C/10 years and the increase in heat stress days was 0.80 days/10 years. The highest increases in UTCImax and heat stress days were noted in eastern and south-eastern Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyses the temporal and spatial variability of the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) in Poland in summer. Summer is the season with the highest intensity of tourism traffic that is why it is important to determine biometeorological conditions, especially in popular tourist destinations such as coastal, mountain and urban areas, in the times of climate changes. The analysis was based on data from 18 stations of IMGW-PIB (Institute of Meteorology and Water Management—National Research Institute), distributed evenly in the territory of the country, and representing all eight bioclimatic regions. The data include air temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity and cloudiness at 12 UTC from summer months: June, July and August from the years 2001–2018. Thermoneutral zone was the most frequently occurring UTCI class in Poland. It was recorded during 56–75% of summer days (with the exception of mountain stations, where it occurred on 30–35% of days). Moderate heat stress is the second most frequently occurring category with a frequency from 18 to 29% with the exception of mountain and coastal areas. Extreme and very strong cold stress occurred particularly in high mountain stations, and was sporadically observed at the coast of the Baltic Sea; however, the occurrence of such conditions decreases, which if favourable for beach tourism. No cases of extreme heat stress were recorded in any of the stations. The most unfavourable bioclimatic conditions were characteristic of the Upland Region (IV), represented by Kraków and Sandomierz, where very strong heat stress occurred with a 10% frequency. This is a limitation for urban tourism in those regions. The highest UTCI values were recorded in Kraków on 17 July 2007 and 29 July 2005. The highest number of cases with strong and very strong heat stress was recorded in 2015 as a consequence of the heat wave observed in Poland in the first half of August. In the majority of the analysed stations, in the second half of the analysed period (2010–2018), an increase in the number of days with strong and very strong heat stress was observed in comparison with the first half of period (2001–2009). The highest frequency of such days was observed in July. Based on the data, there are 4 potential periods of occurrence of such days, with two most intense being 26. July–13 August and 14–22 July. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of negative consequences from climate changes provokes divergent effects in all economic sectors. The experts proved that a core catalyst which bootstrapped the climate changes was greenhouse gas emission. This has led to a range of social, economic, and ecological issues. Such issues could be solved by extending innovation and information technology. This paper aimed to check the hypothesis that innovation and information technology allowed for a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The author used such methodology as OLS, fully modified OLS (FMOLS), dynamic OLS (DMOLS), Dicky-Fuller and Phillips-Perron tests. The research is informed by the report of theWorld Economic Forum,World Data Bank, Eurostat for the Visegrád countries (Hungary, Poland, Check Republic, Slovakia) for the period of 2000--2019. The findings were confirmed in models without control variables, and an increase of 1% of patents led to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 0.28% for Poland, 0.28% for Hungary, 0.38% for the Slovak Republic and 0.46% for the Czech Republic. At the same time, for the models with control variables, only Hungary experienced a statistically significant impact. There, an increase of patents by 1% led to reduction of GHG emissions by 0.22%. The variable R&D expenditure was statistically significant for all countries and all types of models (with and without control variables). The increase of R&D expenditure provoked a decline of GHG emissions by 0.29% (without control variables) and 0.11% (with control variables) for Poland, by 0.26% (without control variables) and 0.41% (with control variables) for Hungary, by 0.3% (without control variables) and 0.23% (with control variables) for the Slovak Republic and by 0.54% (without control variables) and 0.38% (with control variables) for the Czech Republic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Poland, Hedwigia ciliata (Hedw.) P. Beauv., an obligatory epilithic moss species, has in recent years also been observed on the bark of trees. In this paper, we describe 25 recently identified sites in which epiphytic H. ciliata has been observed, and provide a plausible explanation to account for this phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The activity and initiatives undertaken by financial institutions to protect the environment are now the goal of the evolution of the entire financial market. However, it is important not to ignore the legal issues and their implications, which to a large extent now permeate many financial decisions and affect the practices and behaviours of banks. The main objective of this paper was to identify the current condition of and ongoing developments in European Union legal regulations concerning Environmental, Social, Governance (ESG) and sustainable finance. An important aspect of this study was also to analyse the tools, legal instruments, standards and guidelines of the European Commission and the European Banking Authority (EBA) and those proposed by the international business environment in the area of non-financial reporting ESG disclosures in the EU banking sector as exemplified by Poland. In addition, this paper analyses the status of implementation of ESG-related requirements set by the EU legal framework by banks, banking associations and associations of cooperative banks operating in Poland. To achieve the objectives of this study, and to answer the research questions posed, an analysis of primary and secondary sources was carried out in conjunction with a review of the (national and foreign) literature on the subject. Two non-reactive research methodologies were used in the design of this study: the doctrinal legal method and desk research. The results of the analysis indicate that EU regulations are at the drafting stage and those adopted so far require a number of amendments. Banker associations have voiced extensive criticism of the regulations, which are viewed by banks as inadequate, unclear and inconsistent. Both EU and Polish banker associations primarily point to a high degree of generality in the solutions and legal frameworks adopted. The legal acts enacted to date do not correspond to the needs of the market. The analysis of the positions of the banking associations also revealed that the EU legislation still has gaps preventing a harmonised approach to the comprehensive and consistent integration of ESG factors by banks in their strategy and operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long-term groundwater level analysis, which is usually based on traditionally defined hydrological years is essential in an era of global warming and other climatic and environmental changes, especially in urban areas. A complex interplay of multiple factors influencing the groundwater level makes the investigation of their interdependencies a challenge. Based on multiple data sets and a long time series available as well as specific geological and hydrological conditions, a semi-urban district of Wrocław/Poland was selected as a case study for investigating these dependencies. This paper presents an interdisciplinary approach to the analysis of groundwater level fluctuations by combining mathematics, signal processing, hydrogeology, and meteorology. Applying well-known methods from disciplines other than hydrogeology, the authors investigated seasonal behavior and similarity of groundwater level fluctuations during 15 hydrological years. Based on segmentation and agglomerative clustering (AHP), five classes of groundwater levels fluctuations for predefined hydrologic years and the corresponding seasons were identified and compared to the classification scheme by Pleczyński. Additionally, the relationship between precipitation and groundwater level was investigated using Pearson, Kendall and Spearman correlations. This led to the identification of "typical" and "untypical" seasons for the correlation between the cumulative precipitation sum and groundwater levels. The results presented here will be used for further investigations of groundwater level fluctuations using additional factors and statistical methods. These aim to identify periods that describe similarities better than the commonly used hydrological year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper aims to answer the following questions: What are the trends in streetscape design? And how can streetscape become more resilient to climate change in the coming years? Although the research questions of exploratory nature also challenge theoretical claims, this is a hypothetical study, designed to foster a discussion about the visions of the future streetscape and new technology for an urban sidewalk. It covers a description and a cross-case comparison of an experimental product – the Climate Tile, implemented in Denmark in 2018, and a theoretical solution – the Sponge Pavement – a model system based on the structural soil foundation and permeable surface, evolved as an idea in 2018 in Poland. The cases are examples of innovations selected to describe a new type of water-permeable surfaces matching the urban context. Both solutions share common features: they are in that there is no need to place heavy equipment on the project site; they match the urban context of a dense city, being smooth, resistant and easy to clean. The comparison of the Climate Tile and the Sponge Pavement allowed determining the optimal application for the given solution. It also proved the trend towards the rainwater management-oriented direction of the development of the streetscape of the future. The study results could contribute to the discussion of the streetscape of the future. We would like to focus on the idea of the Sponge Pavement for further development in laboratory tests and as the pilot project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Due to rising temperatures worldwide many areas are threatened with increasing numbers of fire occurrence. Poland is among these areas and is projected to experience over the next century an increase in both heat stress and wildfire activity with the potential to turn its fire-resistant forests into fire-prone forests. This paper aims to provide an introduction to the conditions favourable to fire occurrence in Poland, summarising the research on sedimentary charcoal analysis and reviewing fire reconstructions based on natural archives from Poland. Here, natural wildfires occurred at the beginning of the Holocene but, due to changes in climate (wetter summers) and vegetation after 6550 BC, the main trigger of fire occurrence became human activity, mainly as a result of forest clearance for agrarian purposes. However, there is evidence that prolonged droughts also triggered wildfires. Over recent decades, according to existing data, arson (44.85%) and negligence (34.43%) have been the most common causes of fire occurrence in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present and discuss the results of a survey of fishers exploiting dam reservoirs to determine the conditions of conducting fisheries associated primarily with climate change. Overall, questionnaires were obtained from 18 enterprises (of which 16 were chapters of the Polish Anglers Association) regarding a total of 30 reservoirs with a combined surface area of 29,666 ha, which is 49% of the total surface are of this type of basin in Poland, the largest country in East-Central Europe. This sample is highly representative of all the fisheries conducted in this basin category in Poland and in other East-Central European regions. The following questions referring to the impact of climate change were defined and analyzed based on the answers obtained from the questionnaires: survival of hatchlings, fry, and adult fish; the spawning success of selected fish species; selected hydrological and biological reservoir parameters, the possibility of using and the effectiveness of fishing gears; the length of the recreational fishing season; the size of recreational and commercial fisheries catches of different fish species. Information regarding the impact of reservoirs on fish migrations was also obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores visualization-supported dialogues with water management and ecosystem stakeholders from four catchments in Sweden, Latvia, Germany and Poland. An interactive visualization tool was designed to present information regarding modelled effects of chosen future pathways including different measures that address ecosystem issues under present and future scenarios of land use and climate change, and estimated benefits and costs of the measures. This paper assesses if and how visualization-supported dialogues hinder or support key components of good governance of water and ecosystem management among expert stakeholders. We discuss challenges and opportunities related to the tool and dialogue design, and performance of dialogues. Results from a cross-case workshop indicate that the form and functionality of the tool contributes to participation, empowerment, accessibility and flexibility, while dialogue design is instrumental for encouraging trust and inclusion of local knowledge and competence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate changes and depleting natural resources call for the urgent sustainability transition of the economy. This also refers to food systems, which are a vital part of the economy directly linked to the nature. The first step in creating better forward-looking policies for the transition of food systems is identification of knowledge gaps to target R&D spending. In the paper we focus on the presentation and analysis of research directions that constitute future challenges for the transformation of research and development in Poland. The methodology of research applied in the study is based on participatory action research philosophy. The approach to determine the research challenges and needs included round tables and focus groups under the BIOEAST initiative. The results show that the most important weakness is low level of R&D expenditure in bioeconomy sectors, while the strength is a large number of new active entities for implementation of innovations, supporting bioeconomy and science-practice cooperation. The key recommendation is increasing the R&D spending and prepare national bioeconomy strategy to make use of the large potential of the Polish bioeconomy sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]