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While climate services for small-scale farmers are gaining recognition for contributing to adaptation and resilience to climate variability and change, their provision in developing countries remains a critical challenge. Effective climate services consider why and how farmers of varied socioeconomic background make relevant decisions avoiding the traditional prescriptive forms of transfer that merely focus on delivering climate information. Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa shows that climate services for agriculture generates transformations in how farmers access and use climate information, as well as changes in farmer decision-making. In this paper, we address the question of whether the same effect is also seen in Latin America, where farming systems, farming decisions, socioeconomic contexts and non-climate constraints are very different to those of Africa. A group of 209 farmers in the dry corridor in Honduras was studied. We find that 98% of the trained farmers did uptake and use the climate information, and some 73% expressed that the agroclimatic information was key to the success of their harvest despite the challenging 2019 season. Some 43% of the farmers made changes in farming practices. In particular, farmers changed the crop they grew, the crop and land management, the planting dates, inputs and crop varieties. These changes reportedly had positive effects on their food security, and income. These findings support the hypothesis that Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) plays a positive role in providing effective climate services in Central America, improving decision-making, and enabling farmers to make their own decisions based on the analysis of information and their demands regardless of their level of literacy. We pose that participatory climate services in agriculture can catalyse processes of long-term transformation in farming systems, notably through lifting farmers out of poverty and food insecurity and providing an integrated approach to make informed decisions in the face of climatic variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the patterns of the occurrences of fire incidents over sub-Saharan Africa are studied on the basis of satellite data. Patterns for the whole sub-Saharan Africa are contrasted with those for northern sub-Saharan Africa and southern-hemisphere Africa. This paper attempts to unravel linear trends and overriding oscillations using regression and spectral techniques. It compares fire patterns for aggregated vegetation with those for specific types, which are savannahs, grasslands, shrublands, croplands, and forests, to identify key trend drivers. The underlying cyclic trends are interpreted in light of climate change and model projections. Considering sub-Saharan Africa, northern sub-Saharan Africa, and southern-hemisphere Africa, we found declining linear trends of wildfires with overriding cyclic patterns that have a period of ∼5 years, seemingly largely driven by savannahs, grasslands, and croplands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic and the climate emergency threaten progress in reaching many of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets by 2030. The under-5 mortality and maternal mortality rates are well below the targets, and if we progress at the current pace, there is a high risk of not meeting the 2030 goals. Furthermore, the initial progress in the decline in child and maternal mortality since 1990 is likely to be eroded. Much of this progress has resulted from increased sanitation, drinking water, education, and health service coverage. The adequate provision of public services is possible if there is sufficient government funding. When governments have more income, they spend more on public services, which increases access to fundamental economic and social rights and, thus, contributes to the SDGs. One of the key drivers of government financing, taxation, constitutes 70% of government revenue in low- and lower-middle-income countries. Corporate income tax constitutes 18.8% of tax revenue in African countries compared to 10% of tax revenue in OECD countries. Therefore, it plays a critical role in SDG progress. This paper aims to quantify the contribution of one large taxpayer, that publishes their tax payments, (Vodafone Group Plc) on progress towards SDGs in six African countries. We use econometric modelling to estimate the impact of an increase in government revenue equivalent to Vodafone's average tax paid between 2007–2017. Results: We find that government revenue equivalent to Vodafone's taxes made a significant contribution to progress in attaining selected SDGs. We found that the revenue equivalent to Vodafone's taxes allowed 966,188 people to access clean water and 1,371,972 people to access basic sanitation each year. Over the time period studied, 858,054 children spent an extra year in school and 54,275 children under five years and 3,655 mothers survived. In just one of these countries, Tanzania, the revenue equivalent to Vodafone's tax contribution allowed 174,121 people to access clean water and 223,586 to access sanitation each year. Over the time studied 187,023 children spent an additional year at school, 6,569 additional children under five and 625 additional mothers survived. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that the reported contributions from a single multinational corporation drive SDG progress. Furthermore, it highlights the importance of transparent taxes and explores the responsibilities of global institutions, governments, investors, and multinational corporations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has become a global issue and affects various regions at different levels. The hydro-climatic conditions and the natural fragility of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) make it prone to floods. The review was intended to comprehensively explore the determinants of floods in the continent and their effects on public health. An extensive systematic literature search in English was conducted for peer-reviewed papers, abstracts and internet articles, grey literature, and official Government documents and analysed to identify common themes, findings, and outcomes. Finally, the findings were categorized into common themes. The review revealed that the frequency and intensity of precipitations have increased in recent decades in SSA. This is worsened by anthropogenic activities including urban sprawl, population growth, and land use changes. The health effects of floods are diverse, varied, and specific to a particular context which can be immediate and long-term. The economic losses due to the flood events in the continent are huge. In conclusion, Governments across the continent need to give flood management a top priority as part of national disaster preparedness, response, and mitigation. Floods cannot be managed in isolation; it has to be incorporated into national urban planning with urbanization to make cities resilient and sustainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the progress in climate change adaptation and mitigation actions in sub-Saharan Africa farming systems. Farmers, organizations and Governments in the region have developed policies and innovations to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of climate change. It appears that the developed and implemented innovative adaptive farming systems and technologies have culminated into resultant overall productivity improvement in farming systems, necessitating scaling up in order to widely strengthen the resilience and adaptive capacity of vulnerable communities to the impacts of climate change. Additionally, climate governance instruments that are aligned to the ratified international treaties have been developed and related programs have been rolled out in different countries. This offers hope for well-coordinated efforts and interventions for the mitigation and adaptation to the adverse impacts of climate change on the environment and livelihoods. Observably, there is a pressing need to scale up climate smart innovations sustainably through creation of an enabling policy environment, capacity building, and conducting climate change related research and outreach, and effective dissemination of climate technologies and information, especially in remote areas in the region. Since climate change is a global issue, local initiatives and actions for mitigating and adapting to the adverse impacts ought to be well integrated into the broader international context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes to the debate on the determinants of deforestation, a menace that is posing threat to sustainable development particularly in tropical developing regions. Specifically, the paper focuses on the effect of energy justice and democratization. The main contribution to the literature hinges on the emphasis on energy justice - operationalized as rural-urban equality in access to electricity and clean fuels and technologies for cooking - and its interaction with democracy. Using a panel data of 47 sub-Saharan African countries over the period 2000–2020 and the dynamic two-step generalized method of moment estimator, the results generally indicate that improvement in rural-urban equality in access to electricity and clean fuels and technologies for cooking is associated with a reduction in deforestation. Democracy is similarly found to be associated with reduction in deforestation. The conditional effect analysis largely depicts an intensified reducing effect of energy justice on deforestation in the presence of improved democratic practices. The results though robust to an alternative estimator, the Driscoll-Kraay estimator, differ when sub-regional analysis is considered. The paper aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goals 7, 13, 15 and 16. • How energy justice and democratization contribute to deforestation is examined. • Energy justice is measured by rural-urban equality in modern energy access. • Participatory, deliberative, egalitarian, liberal and electoral democracy are used. • Improving rural-urban equality in access to modern energy reduces deforestation. • Improving democracy reduces deforestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the environmental migrations has become a triggering factor nowadays as the result of climate change effects, the issue of migration is still controversial for the international poltics. It is estimated that by 2050 one in every 45 people in the world will be displaced by the impact of climate change. More than 143 million (around 2,8%) internal climate migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Latin America could be forced to move within their own countries to escape the slow-onset disasters by the 2050. Therefore, it becomes a responsibility at the international level, however there is no concrete international law to protect the environmentally induced migrants. As both developed and developing countries are facing huge challenges they should, therefore, portray its urgency, depth and coordinated framework for addressing challenges with “hotspot”s to reduce their vulnerability to the impacts of environmental disasters and manage the risks. This paper tries to explain how big the problem is, what international liability lies on developed and developing countries in reducing risk, and the problems of environmentally induced migrants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change continues to pose a threat to food and nutrition security for many households in sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. Several studies have therefore examined the challenges of climate change to agricultural productivity and poverty, and the impacts of adaptation to climate change on outcomes such as farm yields, net farm incomes, as well as food and nutrition security of households in SSA. In this paper, I review this voluminous literature on the challenges and adaption to climate change by farmers in the region. I will first provide an overview on the literature on the challenges and adaptation to climate change within the last two decades, followed by a brief discussion of the methods used in modeling the impact of adaptation to climate change on farm performance. Finally, I will present some empirical results on the impact of adoption of climate-smart techniques on crop yields by farmers in Ghana, and provide some thoughts on policy implications and future research in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ambitious climate policy increases the cost of energy and therefore has important interactions with the prospects of development in the countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. These interactions include the potential for gain for the continent in the form of new trade opportunities and climate finance. In this paper we quantify the costs and benefits of climate policy in Sub-Saharan Africa. Using an Integrated Assessment Model, we consider key characteristics of the continent, including the favorable conditions for renewable energy. A newly designed scenario analysis allows identifying the main drivers of the results. We show that Sub-Saharan Africa could implement climate policy in line with the 2 °C target at roughly net zero costs if the international community follows up on its commitment towards supporting developing countries as declared in the Paris Agreement. Sub-Saharan Africa could become an important supplier of energy from biomass and could thus even benefit from more ambitious climate policy due to higher demand for this source of energy. The absence of a painful trade-off between short-term development and long-term climate stabilization could provide policy-makers with a much richer policy option space than previously considered. One such option is to link climate policy with poverty reduction through, for example, the provision of clean electricity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several climate change related factors including temperature increases, changes in rainfall patterns and outbreak of pests and diseases negatively affect agricultural productivity and food security. Climate change effects significantly increase production risk and rural vulnerability, particularly in regions that already suffer from chronic soil and water resource scarcity or high exposure to climatic extremes, such as droughts and flooding. The effects of climate change on agriculture may depend not only on changing climate conditions, but also on the agricultural sector's ability to adapt through changes in technology and demand for food. Significant proportions of the growing populations in developing countries derive their livelihoods from agriculture and are, therefore, vulnerable to climate change effects. The task of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger by 2015, as per Millennium Development Goals, will require both regional and global research efforts and concrete actions among which biotechnology adoption plays a key role. Advances in biotechnology can lead to cutting-edge technologies in agriculture. However, sub-Saharan Africa faces an uphill task with regard to the adoption and use of agricultural biotechnology. The potential to improve the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers is a strong incentive to meet the challenge. This paper reviews research work on climate change in relation to increasing food insecurity situation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and the significance of plant biotechnology in reversing the disturbing food insecurity trends on the continent. To move plant biotechnology forward, the paper recommends that African countries institutionalize effective bio-safety regulatory frameworks, and commit resources to capacity building and provision of infrastructure for biotechnology development. Funding of Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) related research into tropical and sub-tropical staple foods, suitable for the needs of small-scale farmers in SSA countries, is strongly recommended. There is also the need for researchers to engage in effective education and communication with the general public so as to enhance adoption of biotechnological products in Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive population displacements are now regularly presented as one of the most dramatic possible consequences of climate change. Current forecasts and projections show that regions that would be affected by such population movements are low-lying islands, coastal and deltaic regions, as well as sub-Saharan Africa. Such estimates, however, are usually based on a 2°C temperature rise. In the event of a 4°C+ warming, not only is it likely that climate-induced population movements will be more considerable, but also their patterns could be significantly different, as people might react differently to temperature changes that would represent a threat to their very survival. This paper puts forward the hypothesis that a greater temperature change would affect not only the magnitude of the associated population movements, but also—and above all—the characteristics of these movements, and therefore the policy responses that can address them. The paper outlines the policy evolutions that climate-induced displacements in a 4°C+ world would require. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) experiences soil degradation, food and livelihood insecurity, environmental pollution and lack of access to energy. Biochar has gained international research attention, but few studies have investigated the potential of biochar to address the challenges in SSA. This paper seeks to identify and evaluate generic potential opportunities and constraints associated with biochar application in sub-Saharan Africa using Zimbabwe as case study. Specific objectives were to; (1) identify and quantify feedstocks for biochar production; (2) review literature on the biochar properties, and evaluate its potential applications in agriculture, environmental remediation and energy provision, and (3) identify research gaps, risks and constraints associated with biochar technology. Biochar feedstocks in Zimbabwe were estimated to be 9.9 Mton yr −1 , predominantly derived from manure (88%) and firewood (10%). This will yield 3.5, 1.7 and 3.1 Mton yr −1 of biochar, bio-oil and synthetic gas, respectively. Land application of the 3.5 Mton yr −1 of biochar (≈63% C) would sequester approximately 2.2 Mton yr −1 of soil carbon in Zimbabwe alone, while simultaneously minimizing the environmental and public health risks, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with solid organic wastes. Biochar potentially enhances soil and crop productivity through enhanced nutrient and soil moisture availability, amelioration of acidic soils and stimulation of microbial diversity and activity. Due to its excellent adsorption properties, biochar has potential applications in industrial and environmental applications including water and wastewater treatment, remediation and revegetation of contaminated soils and water. Biochar products have energy values comparable or higher than those of traditional biomass fuels; thereby making them ideal alternative sources of energy especially for poor households without access to electricity. Before the benefits of biochar can be realized in SSA, there is need to overcome multiple risks and constraints such as lack of finance, socio-economic constraints including negative perceptions and attitudes among both researchers and consumers, and environmental and public health risks. Therefore, there is need to conduct fundamental research to demonstrate the benefits of biochar applications, and develop policy framework and criteria for its production and subsequent adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are particularly vulnerable to climate change, given dependence on agricultural production and limited adaptive capacity. Based on farm household and Participatory Rural Appraisal data collected from districts in various agroecological zones in Kenya, this paper examines farmers' perceptions of climate change, ongoing adaptation measures, and factors influencing farmers' decisions to adapt. The results show that households face considerable challenges in adapting to climate change. While many households have made small adjustments to their farming practices in response to climate change (in particular, changing planting decisions), few households are able to make more costly investments, for example in agroforestry or irrigation, although there is a desire to invest in such measures. This emphasizes the need for greater investments in rural and agricultural development to support the ability of households to make strategic, long-term decisions that affect their future well-being. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In numerous countries of Sub-Saharan Africa the strategic agenda of the water-sector is undergoing substantial change because of demographic pressure, climate change and economic transformation. Two new policy questions are arising from the need to make better use of available groundwater storage to improve water-supply security: What is the scope for promoting much increased groundwater use for irrigated agriculture, and how might the investment risks be reduced and sustainable outcomes ensured? How can the demand to expand urban groundwater use, for both further supplementing municipal water-supply systems and for direct in situ water supply, be best channelled to maximise the benefits whilst minimising the risks? This 'new agenda' poses very different challenges from the long-standing requirement to provide rural water supplies of adequate coverage, reliability and quality (which, while still not yet fully addressed, is outside the scope of this paper). Balanced answers to these new questions are needed to provide a sound basis for appropriate investment policies on managed groundwater development and adequate institutional provisions for their implementation. They are discussed here from the standpoint of the GW-MATE experience in some World Bank-supported projects in eastern Africa during 2001-2010, together with a review of some developments in western Africa and insights from parts of Asia and Latin America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper estimates the relationship between average rainfall and population density in Sub-Saharan Africa in order to assess the consequences of climate and demographic changes in terms of future water stress in that region. Geographic Information System (GIS) data on density and rainfall and climate change scenarios are combined in order to identify areas which will be subject to increased pressures stemming from excessive population, given their precipitation levels. We first describe the empirical relationship existing between average yearly rainfall and density over sub-Saharan Africa. The limit of 900 mm of annual rainfall appears to define the threshold below which water constitutes a binding constraint to higher densities. Above that threshold, density and rainfall are not spatially correlated. In a second stage, we identify areas subject to water stress. In our framework, those are defined as zones belonging to the right end of the distribution of densities conditional on average rainfall. In a last step, localized population projections and changes in rainfall predicted by two mainstream climate change scenarios are utilized to assess the respective impacts of those two factors on the changes in extent and distribution of high-stress zones over the continent between 2000 and 2050. If population growth follows projected trends, density increases across the continent should lead to a significant increase in the extent of such zones, especially around the Sahel belt and in Eastern Africa. The impact of changes in rainfall is more difficult to assess, because climate models differ locally as regards projections of yearly rainfall, especially in intermediate zones such as the Sahel. If, according to the predictions of most climate models, the Sahel were to experience average rainfall increases, these would ease, though not offset totally, the pressure stemming from demographic growth in that region. In contrast, in most of Eastern Africa, predicted drops in average rainfall would work in the same direction as demographic changes to increase the pressure on significant parts of the territory. In Southern Africa, demographic stagnation is likely to mitigate significantly the impact of climate change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

One of the consequences of climate change in Sub-Saharan Africa is that farmers would be more exposed to production risk. Therefore, it is imperative to analyse the climate-related risk and maize production in Southwest, Nigeria. Secondary data between 1981 and 2012 were collected on relevant variables and analysed using Growth Function, Co-integration Model (Autoregressive Distributed Lag Approach) and J-P Model. The results confirmed the presence of long-run equilibrium between maize production and temperature, rainfall and relative humidity. The Error Correction Model (ECM) value was -0.0238 for the enterprise. The results of the analysis on the climaterelated risk indicated that temperature increased the production risk of maize farmers. It can be concluded that farmers face climate-related risk as temperature increased the production risk of maize farmers. Therefore, stakeholders should create more awareness on the need to always practice eco-friendly activities and put in place coping strategies against the menace of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate variability and recurrent droughts have caused remarkable strain on water resources in most regions across the globe, with the arid and semi-arid areas being the hardest hit. The impacts have been notable on surface water resources, which are already under threat from massive abstractions due to increased demand, as well as poor conservation and unsustainable land management practices. Drought and climate variability, as well as their associated impacts on water resources, have gained increased attention in recent decades as nations seek to enhance mitigation and adaptation mechanisms. Although the use of satellite technologies has, of late, gained prominence in generating timely and spatially explicit information on drought and climate variability impacts across different regions, they are somewhat hampered by difficulties in detecting drought evolution due to its complex nature, varying scales, the magnitude of its occurrence, and inherent data gaps. Currently, a number of studies have been conducted to monitor and assess the impacts of climate variability and droughts on water resources in sub-Saharan Africa using different remotely sensed and in-situ datasets. This study therefore provides a detailed overview of the progress made in tracking droughts using remote sensing, including its relevance in monitoring climate variability and hydrological drought impacts on surface water resources in sub-Saharan Africa. The paper further discusses traditional and remote sensing methods of monitoring climate variability, hydrological drought, and water resources, tracking their application and key challenges, with a particular emphasis on sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, characteristics and limitations of various remote sensors, as well as drought and surface water indices, namely, the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI), Normalized Difference Vegetation (NDVI), Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), and Water Requirement Satisfaction Index (WRSI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI), Land Surface Water Index (LSWI+5), Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI+5), Automated Water Extraction Index (shadow) (AWEIsh), and Automated Water Extraction Index (non-shadow) (AWEInsh), and their relevance in climate variability and drought monitoring are discussed. Additionally, key scientific research strides and knowledge gaps for further investigations are highlighted. While progress has been made in advancing the application of remote sensing in water resources, this review indicates the need for further studies on assessing drought and climate variability impacts on water resources, especially in the context of climate change and increased water demand. The results from this study suggests that Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 satellite data are likely to be best suited to monitor climate variability, hydrological drought, and surface water bodies, due to their availability at relatively low cost, impressive spectral, spatial, and temporal characteristics. The most effective drought and water indices are SPI, PDSI, NDVI, VCI, NDWI, MNDWI, MNDWI+5, AWEIsh, and AWEInsh. Overall, the findings of this study emphasize the increasing role and potential of remote sensing in generating spatially explicit information on drought and climate variability impacts on surface water resources. However, there is a need for future studies to consider spatial data integration techniques, radar data, precipitation, cloud computing, and machine learning or artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to improve on understanding climate and drought impacts on water resources across various scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]