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This study examines the emerging relationship between microcredentials and qualification systems. Information gathered through an online survey among European VET providers, national authorities, employee and employer organisations was complemented by in-depth country case studies and interviews with Cedefop's ReferNet network. Questions of whether and how microcredentials should be related to established qualification systems are at an early stage of consideration in most countries; the focus is on better defining and standardising their role within national qualifications systems. Existing trends towards modularisation and the recognition of prior learning provide potential avenues for realising the benefits of microcredentials in terms of flexibility and responsiveness, while also ensuring their quality for learners and employers. There is still significant debate over how to deal with microcredentials, and how to avoid potential negative effects, such as encouraging a shift away from holistic education towards short-duration learning based around reduced skill sets. Microcredentials are a complex phenomenon, particularly with regard to their relationship to qualifications. In recent years, there has been an acceleration in the availability and use of microcredentials in the labour market, raising questions about their relationship to VET and to qualification systems. The proliferation of microcredentials of different types across various sectors, occupations, education sectors and levels and countries, along with variations between countries in the nature of qualification systems -- which are undergoing change -- make this a complex landscape to research and analyse. To date there has been a lack of data at EU level informing decision-making in this area. This report aims to be a first step towards filling some key gaps in the knowledge around these topics, addressing three main research questions.

In this descriptive study, we use longitudinal student-level administrative records from 4 cohorts of high school graduates in Kentucky to examine the extent to which students persist and attain post-secondary credentials in the CTE fields of concentration they choose in high school. To our knowledge, this is the first paper to use student-level administrative data to examine how different fields of concentration in high school CTE are related to future postsecondary outcomes. We find that concentrating in a particular CTE field in high school is associated with both continuing on with that same field in college and obtaining a postsecondary credential in that field; this relationship is especially strong in health fields and especially for women in health. The secondary-postsecondary connection is the weakest among students concentrating in occupational fields in high school, who are also the most disadvantaged socioeconomically and academically before high school. Despite the existence of secondary-postsecondary pipelines of career interests, most students enroll and obtain credentials in fields that are "different" from the field of concentration in high school. In addition, relative to students with similar pre-high-school achievement as measured by grades and test scores, we find that CTE concentration in high school is strongly associated with being more likely to enroll in a two-year college and less likely to enroll in a four-year college.

Which occupations are best for wellbeing? There is a large literature on earnings differentials, but less attention has been paid to occupational differences in non-pecuniary rewards. However, information on both types of rewards is needed to understand the dispersion of wellbeing across occupations. We analyse subjective wellbeing in a large representative sample of UK workers to construct a measure of "full earnings", the sum of earnings and the value of non-pecuniary rewards, in 90 different occupations. We first find that the dispersion of earnings underestimates the extent of inequality in the labour market: the dispersion of full earnings is one-third larger than the dispersion of earnings. Equally, the gender and ethnic gaps in the labour market are larger than data on earnings alone would suggest, and the true returns to completed secondary education (though not to a degree) are underestimated by earnings differences on their own. Finally, we show that our main results are similar, and stronger, for a representative sample of US workers. [Funding for this report was provided by an Écoles Universitaires de Recherche, EUR (University Research Schools, EUR) grant.]

The share of women achieving tertiary education has increased rapidly over time and now exceeds that of men in most OECD countries. However, women are severely under-represented in maths-intensive science fields, which are generally referred to as STEM (science, technology, engineering, and maths). The under-representation of women in these subject areas has received a great deal of attention. This is because these fields are seen to be especially important for productivity and economic growth and are associated with occupations that have higher earnings. Subject of degree is an important part of the explanation for the gender wage gap. The aim of this paper is to review evidence on explanations for the STEM gap in tertiary education. This starts with statistics about background context and evidence on how well-prepared male and female students may be for studying STEM at a later stage. I then discuss what the literature has to say about the role of personal attributes: namely confidence, self-efficacy and competitiveness and the role of preferences and expectations. I go on to discuss features of the educational context thought to be important for influencing attributes and preferences (or mediating their effects): peers; teachers; role models; and curriculum. I then briefly discuss broader cultural influences. I use the literature reviewed to discuss policy implications.

As one of the world's fastest-growing economies, Bangladesh aims to become a middle-income country by 2021 and a high-income country by 2041. To attain these goals, the country must face global challenges head on by strengthening existing industries and preparing itself for industries that have yet to emerge. To do this, it must tap the full potential of its human capital. Although Bangladesh made strides in access to education during the Millennium Development Goals era, poor girls continue to fall behind despite their ambitions to lead the country to change--a gap that affects their work outcomes once they leave school. The skills that Bangladesh's youth need to thrive in a world of rapid technological advancement will require a response by policymakers and practitioners alike. This policy paper unveils the barriers to educational opportunities for rural girls in Bangladesh, focusing specifically on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. It reflects upon a survey of 500 rural secondary-level schoolgirls, 100 parents, and 75 teachers from 30 rural schools of the district of Gazipur. The study identified barriers to STEM education at three levels--individual, institutional, and societal--that revealed both systemic and socio-cultural issues that actors in policy and practice can tackle. It provides clear recommendations for action and examples of practices that have started to fill the gap globally. If Bangladesh is to accomplish its goals and tap the potential of all its youth for rapid development, breaking the barriers to STEM education for all children is a key place to start. [This report was co-authored with Amanda Braga.]

This study compares the differences in the mismatch between the education and occupations of immigrants in Canada and the United States, operationalized by over-education. It further explores how the cross-country differences may be related to the supply of and demand for university-educated immigrants and the way they are selected. Using comparable data and three measures of over-education, this study found that university-educated recent immigrants in Canada were much more likely to be overeducated than their U.S. peers. The over-education rate gap between recent immigrants and the native-born was much more pronounced in Canada than in the United States. In addition, while labour market demand was associated with a lower level of over-education in both countries, a greater supply of university-educated recent immigrants was positively associated with a likelihood of over-education among recent immigrants in Canada, but not in the United States. Furthermore, in Canada, the over-education rate was significantly lower among immigrants who were admitted through some form of employer selection (e.g., immigrants who worked in skilled jobs in Canada before immigration) than those who were admitted directly from abroad. Overall, this study provides insight into how the immigration system interacts with broader aspects of the labour market to shape the labour market outcomes of immigrants.

We describe the postsecondary transitions of students taking CTE courses in high school using administrative data on one cohort of high school graduates in Washington State. Conditional on observable characteristics, CTE concentrators--high school graduates who complete at least four CTE credits--are about 4 percentage points less likely to enroll in college than other high school graduates. However, CTE students are significantly more likely to enroll in and complete vocational programs, especially in certificate programs in applied STEM and public safety fields. Among students not enrolled in college, CTE students are also more likely to obtain full-time employment--and to work more intensively--within the first three years following high school graduation. Although the improvements in employment outcomes do not offset reductions in college enrollment, the higher completion rates of vocational credentials among CTE concentrators indicate some important positive outcomes for this population.

We leverage nationally representative data and statewide data from Washington to investigate trends in occupational career and technical education (CTE) participation for students with and without disabilities. Consistent with prior work, we document declines in occupational CTE participation since the early 2000s, and provide the first empirical evidence that students with disabilities disproportionately contributed to this decline. But we also show that occupational CTE participation has stabilized for all students in the past decade in Washington, and that participation by students with disabilities in applied science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine (applied STEMM) CTE courses has increased since the early 2000s. These trends are encouraging given prior evidence linking applied STEMM-CTE participation to better long-term outcomes for students with disabilities.

Competency-based education (CBE) is a rapidly growing movement of postsecondary and K-12 programs that allow learners to move ahead based on what they know and can do, rather than time spent in class. At the postsecondary level, CBE could be a pathway that helps many thousands of learners move from poverty to prosperity. This paper considers how CBE can be used to educate, equip, and empower learners who struggle in postsecondary learning programs because of who they are and where they live. Recommended starting points--places and programs--are provided throughout the paper to highlight where and how CBE providers can prioritize equity. The first section identifies three learner populations for CBE programs to prioritize: (1) learners of color; (2) adult learners who are unemployed or underemployed; and (3) adult learners with some postsecondary education but no credential. The second section details the types of programs CBE providers should offer, and the final section suggests some occupations and industries for which CBE programs should prepare their graduates.

In the first systematic study of gender achievement gaps in U.S. school districts, we estimate male-female test score gaps in math and English Language Arts (ELA) for nearly 10,000 school districts in the U.S. We use state accountability test data from third through eighth grade students in the 2008-09 through 2014-15 school years. The average school district in our sample has no gender achievement gap in math, but a gap of roughly 0.23 standard deviations in ELA that favors girls. Both math and ELA gender achievement gaps vary among school districts and are positively correlated -- some districts have more male-favoring gaps and some more female-favoring gaps. We find that math gaps tend to favor males more in socioeconomically advantaged school districts and in districts with larger gender disparities in adult socioeconomic status. These two variables explain about one fifth of the variation in the math gaps. However, we find little or no association between the ELA gender gap and either socioeconomic variable, and we explain virtually none of the geographic variation in ELA gaps.

This occasional paper provides a stocktake of recent developments in continuing professional development for VET practitioners. It explores issues such as industry currency, the debate around a professional association for VET and the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment as the minimum qualification for VET practitioners. Through synthesising the literature, the paper highlights enduring issues for continuing professional development in VET, such as the need to address both pedagogical knowledge and industry skills, and the necessity for individuals to actively engage and willingly participate in professional development in order for changes in practice to occur.

In recent years, policymakers and academics have become increasingly interested in the returns to sub-baccalaureate degrees. This interest arises from surging demand for such programs over the 2000s, especially in the wake of the 2008 recession, as well as from President Obama's charge to dramatically increase the number of students with a college degree of some type. We estimate the returns to both community and technical colleges in the state of Ohio. We find that associate degrees generate positive earnings effects for both men and women. These positive effects occur across many fields but are strongest in health. We find that certificates also generate positive returns, but there is some heterogeneity across men and women. Men benefit from short-duration certificates while women benefit from long-duration certificates. This result is likely driven by heterogeneity in the returns across fields.

Cedefop has been conducting monitoring of the European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) implementation since 2010; this report covers developments from mid-2013 till 2015. It is based on national responses provided by the ECVET users' group from 28 EU Member States and four EFTA countries. The report examines whether existing credit systems provide conditions for individuals to have their learning accumulated or transferred towards a qualification. It examines key aspects: whether qualifications are based on learning outcomes and organised in units; whether individual units are assessed and validated for further transfer and accumulation; whether units are assigned credit points; and whether VET providers use memoranda of understanding and learning agreements to understand better the learning outcomes they provide. The report also focuses on the ways ECVET is promoted among stakeholders and beneficiaries and on examples of support materials that can be useful to ECVET promoters throughout Europe. Two annexes provide country summaries and websites with ECVET information, by country.

This study explores the relationship between college major, occupation, and early-career annual earnings for the years 2008 to 2010 using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth of 1997 (NLSY97). I provide estimates of the effect of college major on earnings for those with bachelor's degrees, associate degrees, and some college but no degree. The study also develops a crosswalk between college major and occupation to measure whether education and employment are matched. Results suggest that the early returns to postsecondary credentials vary widely by college major and level of attainment, with large economic benefits accruing to credentials in business, health science, and STEM subjects and much smaller benefits accruing to credentials in education and the humanities. The study also finds that matched employment in the fields of health science, STEM, and education provides a substantial premium to bachelor's degree holders, while matched employment in health science provides a substantial premium to those with an associate degree. [Appendices A and B are available at ED555429.]

This paper considers issues relating to the measurement of skill for national statistical purposes. It draws upon the work program and research underlying the revision of the national occupational classification for the United Kingdom (UK), SOC90 (Standard Occupational Classification introduced in 1990). The report's introduction states the intention to reflect upon the review-related research findings; detail the perceived inadequacies of SOC90; describe the problems associated with occupational definition in certain areas; show how the revised classification will affect the analysis of skill change; and cause experts to rethink the forecasts of occupational change. Section 2 presents an overview of the history of occupational classification in the UK. Section 3 describes the conceptual basis of the SOC. Section 4 details the perceived weaknesses in SOC90 and the constraints surrounding the development work undertaken to revise this classification. Section 5 outlines some key processes that were influential in bringing about a redefinition of occupations for statistical purposes. Section 6 discusses the resources that were used to investigate the processes of occupational change from a statistical and definitional perspective. Section 7 examines the revised classification in terms of its ability to distinguish and discriminate between occupations and the new analytical opportunities it will provide. Section 8 concludes that SOC2000 (published in spring 2000) makes better use of its conceptual base, solves problems inadequately dealt with earlier, and provides a better tool for job matching purposes than did SOC90. (YLB)

Three broad categories were identified among 340 occupations at the four-digit level of the Australian Standard Classification of Occupations: positively/opportunistically engaged in the global economy (conceptual/creative, conceptual/technical); vulnerable (manufacturing, white-collar clerical, blue-collar operative, manual low skill); and insulated (vocational trades and in-person professional, skilled, and low skill). Analysis of Australian Bureau of Statistics data from 1986-2000 using these classifications revealed the following: (1) the Australian work force is 21% positively engaged, 35% vulnerable, and 44% insulated; (2) 62% of males and 47% of females are exposed to global competition; (3) the proportion of insulated and positively engaged workers rose slightly and vulnerable workers fell from 39% to 35%; (4) workers with vocational qualifications were underrepresented among the positively engaged; (5) although part-time and contingent employment grew faster than full time, especially in insulated occupations, the most rapid growth was in full-time positively engaged; (6) strongest growth in positively engaged was among workers 35-54, whereas younger workers declined in this group; and (7) manufacturing occupations have stagnated, whereas some vocational trades experienced continual growth. These two potential paths were discerned: increasing preparation for conceptual/creative and conceptual/technical occupations and/or maximizing job creation in insulated occupations. (Contains 6 tables and 24 figures in the text; appendices include 10 figures of trends by employment group and the classification of 340 occupations.) (SK)

The contribution of occupational profiling to explaining and forecasting job satisfaction were analyzed by using data on job satisfaction for 33,249 workers from waves 1-7 of the British Household Panel Survey. Overall job satisfaction gradients were defined for major and minor groups of occupations in the United Kingdom's Standard Occupational Classification. The level and congruence of the material aspects and quality of work life aspects of job satisfaction in individual occupational unit groups (OUGs) were profiled. Stark contrasts emerged between fortunate OUGs, where levels of both modes of satisfaction are high, and disfavored OUGs, where both are low. Although the analysis results were consistent with earlier accounts of alienation in industrial settings, the findings required more comprehensive forms of explanation involving established findings about the correlates of job satisfaction. Regression analysis demonstrated that, in many cases, levels of satisfaction in OUGs could be accounted for largely in terms of individual and organizational variables. However, significant occupational effects remained for a large minority of OUGs. Industry was discounted as a minor influence on job satisfaction. The scope for more general explanations of job satisfaction in terms of relative deprivation was suggested, and methods for predicting trends in job satisfaction were outlined. (Contains 22 tables and 46 references.) (Author/MN)

Data from the Work History and Attitudes survey of the Social Change and Economic Life research initiative (SCELI) enquiry of 1986-1989 and the first wave of the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) were analyzed to determine their continuity and comparability with regard to employee attitudes in general and job satisfaction and work centrality in particular. The study revealed a high degree of comparability between the two data sets and in the results obtained when they are used. However, several difficulties in comparing the two data sets were also identified. The SCELI was credited with providing good indicators of both human capital ("own-skill") and job skill and for providing extensive details about the technical milieu of work and the work organization, which were deemed good control variables. BHPS was found to offer excellent data on human capital, particularly on recently acquired technical training and vocational and other education. However, BHPS's direct measures of job skill proved minimal. An imputation process was suggested as one way of resolving this difficulty. The material offered by BHPS on partnership and household structures was concluded to be so admirable as to partly compensate for its lack of workplace and organizational data. (Thirteen figures/tables are included. Five additional tables and a comment on the expressive work ethic are appended.) (Author/MN)

This paper investigated the effects of educational attainment on occupational status and earnings among men. Drawing on nine data sets, it attempted to assess the effects of schooling that persist after measured and unmeasured aspects of family background, and measured cognitive skill were controlled. It also examined differences in the effects of schooling among men of varying ages, races, cognitive levels, and parental occupational backgrounds. When cognitive ability and family background were controlled, most high school graduates did not have an advantage over grammar school graduates in early occupational status. The advantage of college graduates over high school graduates in attaining occupational status was substantial. Among men who were similar, the advantage in current occupational status associated with completing four years of high school was less than one half of the advantage associated with completing four years of college. A detailed analysis of interactions between education and race, measured ability, and father's occupational groups is included. This analysis shows no significant relationship between the variables. (Author/AM)

The relationship between the rate of social change and the incidence of mental disorder was analyzed for a 10 percent regional sample of U.S. counties (N=279) with a non-metropolitan status as of 1950. Data collected in 1950, 1960, and 1970 were derived from the Censuses of Government, Manufacturers, and Population, as well as from Vital Statistics and other government documents. State agencies were surveyed for data on the incidence of mental disorder. Variables under study were changes in: (1) median family income; (2) income inequality; (3) median education; (4) manufacturing (initial status vs post industry); (5) occupations (percent of residents employed in agriculture and percent self and (6) rate of mental disorder. It was theorized that alterations in these dimensions and (6) rate of mental disorder. It was theorized that alternations in these dimensions imply a basic realignment of social patterns and habits with an increased potential for social disorganization and pathology. Analysis indicated that changes, self-employment excepted, were conducive to increased levels of mental disorder in rural areas. These structural changes, especially in the area of occupational change, were found to be "powerfully" related to changes in manufacturing; however, it was surmised that since interpretation of social change is difficult at best, the relationship between industry and mental disorder is less than simple. (JC)

This paper examines differences in patterns of career mobility between women and men over a five year period (1965-1970). First, it analyzes the career mobility of the sample in order to determine to what extent differences in mobility patterns are caused by differences in the occupational distribution of men and women, rather than by sex related individual attributes. Second, it analyzes the impact of labor force participation on mobility. To compare women's and men's occupational mobility, the report uses data from the 1970 Public Use Sample 1/100 (5 percent) state sample. In the case of intragenerational occupational mobility it is found that much of the association between location within the occupational structure in 1965 and 1970 can be explained by a mobility regime which differs little by sex. However, patterns of mobility into and out of the labor force do vary by sex, even when differences between men and women in their work patterns are taken into account. (Author/AM)

An individual's socialization to occupational roles is reviewed in terms of the concepts and of the link between childhood socialization, social class, and occupation. The educational system and peer group influences are briefly reviewed. Occupational socialization is a general progression in which specific job training occurs only near the end of the process. Although several studies suggest the importance of seemingly indirect influences of cultural values, economic values, and the economic system, the relative neglect of occupational socialization in research suggests that it is considered in narrow terms. However, researchers have found numerous links between socialization practices and social class and between social class and occupation. Parental values that are passed on to children are the values that parents need to function in the workplace. Kohn (1969) suggested that occupation reflects all three of the major dimensions of stratification: economic (privilege); honorific (status); and political (power). Other research indicates that occupational socialization occurs as a result of the emphasis on discipline, subordinancy, external reward systems, and a bureaucratic rationale in the educational system. Further research should focus on historical experiences and links between socialization practices and models of social change. (KC)

The Vocational Interest Survey (VIS) is a set of six questionnaires for measuring vocational interests. It is designed to be used in career counseling with persons 15 years and over, who want to explore and understand their vocational interests. Completion of this inventory requires: (1) active participation of respondents, (2) a setting where individuals can concentrate, and (3) an understanding of the goal of this assessment. The purpose of this paper is to outline some aspects of the administration and scoring of the VIS, with special emphasis on the relative preference index. The VIS comes with instructions for administering and completing the survey. The reading level for the instructions is estimated to be at year 5/6 level. The VIS is designed to be essentially self-scoring. The procedure for computing raw scores is the same for all scales. Based on a sample of 2,459 men and women, combined-sex norms were developed as percentile ranks for each of the six scales. The Relative Preference Index (RPI) is used to make statements about a client's level of preference on each subscale. The RPI is a variation of a mastery score that shows quantity of preference. It describes the level of performance rather than the relative standing in a group. It is cautioned that any questionnaire should be employed as only one aspect of the vocational guidance process. (JAZ)

The Vocational Interest Survey (VIS) is a set of six questionnaire scales for measuring vocational interest. It is designed for Australian users and is consistent with Holland's theory that there are six basic career categories. This paper discusses the development of the VIS and presents some technical data on the questionnaires. Items were provided by the users (in the form of free-association responses) rather than by psychologists. Based on those items, a pilot questionnaire was prepared, which contained three separate lists of 138 occupations, 105 study courses, and 152 activities. Complete-link clustering was used to develop six temporary groups of occupational items. The 105 items relating to study courses were then correlated with the six experimental scales. Further item-analyses were conducted to produce six combined jobs/study courses scales with maximum internal consistency. Finally, activity items were selected and added to the combined jobs/study courses. Reliability of VIS scales was assessed using measures of internal consistency, split-half reliability, and test-retest coefficients. In addition, the intercorrelations of the six VIS scales, the construct validity of the VIS, and the relationship between vocational interests on the VIS and career related characteristics were measured. The appendix provides a listing which summarizes the overall responses to each item. (JAZ)

The special language of particular occupations, the role playing of those who practice them, and the terms in which the communications media and the general public refer to them evoke problematic cognitions about occupational functions and practitioner traits that determine an occupation's high or low social standing. Perceptions of occupations rest heavily on stereotypes that are often class based and occur in sets, each stereotypic feature connoting others in the set as well. Race, ethnicity, sex, class subculture, level of attractiveness and kind of personality are common components of such sets. Linguistic evocations encourage a focus upon the special procedures of high prestige occupations rather than on the achievement of demonstrable results, which are expected from low prestige occupations. The various levels of the occupational hierarchy systematically reinforce each other's high or low standing and also systematically legitimize inequalities in the allocation of values in society as a whole. (Author/TA)

This research report focuses on the educational, migrational, and occupational characteristics of the rural-born people from various class origins in a highland minifundia community near Bogota, Colombia. Three main objectives are to describe the nature of growth and adjustment in the labor force under conditions of rapid population growth and highly skewed ownership and control of production; indicate the present limits on the quality and quantity of rural education along with limits on access to education and its role in opening new employment and income opportunities for rural people; and document the level of occupational attainment of rural-born people when controlling data for class of origin, educational attainment, and migration. The report analyzes the impact of a shifting occupational structure on a cross section of rural families in the highland community of Fomeque. Some of the findings are that the mean level of educational attainment is less than four years of primary training; the mean occupational level for nonmigrants is directly related to degree of parental land ownership; and better educated migrants who move to urban centers enter low-level professional and clerical positions with high employment competition. Many data tables and concluding implications are included. (Author/ND)

The Vocational Interest Survey (VIS) is a measure of six vocational interests--practical, scientific, artistic, social, business and clerical--based on the model of interests proposed by Holland. Five broad design criteria for the development of the six interest scales are outlined, e.g., minimum reliability of 0.80. Each scale is organized into three parts: (1) occupational choices; (2) educational preferences; and (3) activity interests. Seven major applications of the VIS are described: individual assessment, diagnosis, selection and placement, guidance, prediction, evaluation, and research. A list of job names and courses for use with the VIS, and the six questionnaires are appended. (Author/JAZ)

The user of the Vocational Interest Survey (VIS) has available a number of interpretative approaches at various descriptive and qualitative levels. This report provides a brief outline of the various approaches. Whenever all six scales of the VIS are administered, the client's total score on all six scales should be within the average range. The average total score is 54. Fifty percent of all clients range from 26 to 72. The clients' highest scores determine their resemblance to one of the six vocational types. People who resemble many vocational types are labeled as undifferentiated or poorly defined; the average level of differentiation in a sample of 206 high school students was 58. The level of consistency refers to the compatibility between a person's highest interests. Compatibility is measured by the distance between the vocational types of interest on a hexagonal typology of interests described by Holland. The hexagonal model may also be used to obtain four degrees of person-occupation congruency. Results from the VIS can be used to search for occupations which are compatible with interests. A copy of the interest profile and list of careers in each vocational category is attached. (JAZ)