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Hedera helix L. is an evergreen vine native to Europe. Nowadays it is commonly recognised as an expansive species, posing danger to biodiversity of natural ecosystems. Obtaining the relationships between morphological variability, productive parameters of vegetative individuals and variations in environmental factors (on the example of the Kórnik Arboretum) is important for understanding the successful adaptation and dispersion of H. helix. Thus, the issue of our studies was to find the link between environmental factors and different traits of H. helix. We collected data on leaf length, leaf width, leaf petiole length, plant stem length, and the number of leaves per stem. We assessed values of ecological plasticity and correlation between the studied parameters. The results indicated the tolerance of ivy to wide variation in edaphic conditions. The limiting environmental factors for growth of the studied subpopulations were soil moisture and soil shade. We found large variability of leaf morphometric parameters and shoot length. Close correlation links were detected between leaf length/leaf width, leaf length/leaf petiole length, and leaf width/leaf petiole length. The length of the average leaf was a more variable parameter than the width of the leaf under different values of light intensity. Weak relationships were found between light intensity at the soil surface and plant stem length/the number of leaves per shoot. A high level of index of morphological integration of H. helix individuals and a close relationship between the quality index/subpopulation composition were established in this study. A direct relationship between light intensity and specific leaf area values was established. The value of specific leaf area decreased linearly with increasing of light intensity at the soil surface.

W dniach 15–17 marca 2022 r. w Instytucie Badawczym Leśnictwa odbyła się XII Sesja Zimowej Szkoły Leśnej, której tematem był „Wpływ zmian klimatu na środowisko leśne”. Spośród licznych propozycji, o wyborze powyższego tematu przesądziło obserwowane od wielu lat systematyczne pogorszanie się stanu zdrowotnego drzewostanów na skutek synergicznego oddziaływania wielu czynników abiotycznych i biotycznych w warunkach zmian klimatu. Współorganizatorem Sesji była Dyrekcja Generalna Lasów Państwowych. Merytoryczne aspekty XII Sesji zostały przygotowane i opracowane przez Radę Programową Zimowej Szkoły Leśnej w składzie: dr hab. Krzysztof Stereńczak, prof. IBL (przewodniczący), prof. dr hab. Bogdan Brzeziecki, mgr inż. Michał Graczyk, prof. dr hab. Andrzej Grzywacz, prof. dr hab. Andrzej Jagodziński, prof. dr hab. Janusz Olejnik, mgr inż. Jan Tabor, mgr inż. Krzysztof Rostek, prof. dr hab. Iwona Skrzecz, dr inż. Klaudia Ziemblińska. Rada Programowa określiła nie tylko zakres problematyki XII Sesji, ale także propozycje tematyczne referatów zamawianych oraz ich autorów. W trakcie trzech dni obrad prelegenci przedstawili 33 referaty. Referaty wygłosili również zaproszeni goście zagraniczni reprezentujący: Uniwersytet w Helsinkach, Czeski Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Pradze, Instytut Badań nad Zmianami Globalnymi (Czechy), Uniwersytet Wspólnoty Wirginii, Łotewski Państwowy Instytut Badawczy Leśnictwa oraz Integrated Carbon Observation System. W XII Sesji, która odbyła się w wersji online, wzięło udział niemal 200 osób reprezentujących m.in.: Ministerstwo Klimatu i Środowiska, jednostki organizacyjne Lasów Państwowych, ośrodki uniwersyteckie i instytuty badawcze. Liczne grono stanowili również przedstawiciele ośrodków naukowych oraz polskich uczelni leśnych.

Plant–microbial relations have not yet been fully disclosed in natural or seminatural ecosystems, nor in novel ecosystems developing spontaneously on post-coal mine heaps. The aim of this study was to determine which factor, biotic (plant taxonomic diversity vs. plant functional diversity) or abiotic (physicochemical substrate parameters), affects the biomass of soil microbial communities the most, as well as soil in situ respiration in novel ecosystems. The study was carried out on unreclaimed plots selected according to four different combinations of taxonomic and functional plant diversity. Additionally, plots on a reclaimed heap served as a comparison between the two management types. The biomass of several soil microbial groups was analysed using phospholipid fatty acids profiles. We detected that soil microbial biomass was more impacted by abiotic parameters (explaining 23% of variance) than plant diversity (explaining 12% of variance). Particularly, we observed that substrate pH was the most important factor shaping microbial community biomass, as shown in the RDA analysis. The highest microbial biomass was found in plots with low taxonomic and functional diversity. This finding can be explained by the fact that these plots represented a more advanced phase of vegetation development in the early stages of plant succession.

Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) is a key objective of the European Forest Strategy. One of the most important aspects to be considered to achieve this fundamental goal is the implementation of Sustainable Forest Operations (SFOs). This study aims to investigate how and to what extent forest logging and silvicultural treatments affect soil physicochemical properties in the context of Mediterranean forestry by summarizing the results of 55 field studies, performed within the development of Master’s and PhD theses, carried out in Italy over the last 15 years. In order to define reliable and scalable conclusions, and going beyond the typical case-study approach, we applied a data synthesis under the meta-analytic framework summarizing the results of the studies analyzed. The results show that disturbance triggered by the silvicultural treatments (meant as an alteration of canopy cover as a consequence of the removal of some trees) is much lower than that caused by forest logging, in particular passage of forest vehicles and woody loads. Furthermore, as expected, a clear relationship was observed between the impacts on soil physicochemical properties and biological impacts. Based on our results we recommend that ground-based extraction on slopes steeper than 20 per cent should be limited, extending the applications of skyline systems or winch-assisted extraction. Interestingly, different conditions of terrain roughness showed variable effects on the magnitude of impacts, suggesting the need for future dedicated studies on this topic. The application of machineries specifically developed for the forestry sector showed better performance than lower levels of mechanizations, confirming what was reported in previous literature on the topic. However, the major finding from this study clearly shows that the way in which extraction is carried out is the major factor causing soil disturbance.

This article is the 13th contribution in the Fungal Diversity Notes series, wherein 125 taxa from four phyla, ten classes, 31 orders, 69 families, 92 genera and three genera incertae sedis are treated, demonstrating worldwide and geographic distribution. Fungal taxa described and illustrated in the present study include three new genera, 69 new species, one new combination, one reference specimen and 51 new records on new hosts and new geographical distributions. Three new genera, Cylindrotorula (Torulaceae), Scolecoleotia (Leotiales genus incertae sedis) and Xenovaginatispora (Lindomycetaceae) are introduced based on distinct phylogenetic lineages and unique morphologies. Newly described species are Aspergillus lannaensis, Cercophora dulciaquae, Cladophialophora aquatica, Coprinellus punjabensis, Cortinarius alutarius, C. mammillatus, C. quercoflocculosus, Coryneum fagi, Cruentomycena uttarakhandina, Cryptocoryneum rosae, Cyathus uniperidiolus, Cylindrotorula indica, Diaporthe chamaeropicola, Didymella azollae, Diplodia alanphillipsii, Dothiora coronicola, Efibula rodriguezarmasiae, Erysiphe salicicola, Fusarium queenslandicum, Geastrum gorgonicum, G. hansagiense, Helicosporium sexualis, Helminthosporium chiangraiensis, Hongkongmyces kokensis, Hydrophilomyces hydraenae, Hygrocybe boertmannii, Hyphoderma australosetigerum, Hyphodontia yunnanensis, Khaleijomyces umikazeana, Laboulbenia divisa, Laboulbenia triarthronis, Laccaria populina, Lactarius pallidozonarius, Lepidosphaeria strobelii, Longipedicellata megafusiformis, Lophiotrema lincangensis, Marasmius benghalensis, M. jinfoshanensis, M. subtropicus, Mariannaea camelliae, Melanographium smilaxii, Microbotryum polycnemoides, Mimeomyces digitatus, Minutisphaera thailandensis, Mortierella solitaria, Mucor harpali, Nigrograna jinghongensis, Odontia huanrenensis, O. parvispina, Paraconiothyrium ajrekarii, Parafuscosporella niloticus, Phaeocytostroma yomensis, Phaeoisaria synnematicus, Phanerochaete hainanensis, Pleopunctum thailandicum, Pleurotheciella dimorphospora, Pseudochaetosphaeronema chiangraiense, Pseudodactylaria albicolonia, Rhexoacrodictys nigrospora, Russula paravioleipes, Scolecoleotia eriocamporesi, Seriascoma honghense, Synandromyces makranczyi, Thyridaria aureobrunnea, Torula lancangjiangensis, Tubeufia longihelicospora, Wicklowia fusiformispora, Xenovaginatispora phichaiensis and Xylaria apiospora. One new combination, Pseudobactrodesmium stilboideus is proposed. A reference specimen of Comoclathris permunda is designated. New host or distribution records are provided for Acrocalymma fici, Aliquandostipite khaoyaiensis, Camarosporidiella laburni, Canalisporium caribense, Chaetoscutula juniperi, Chlorophyllum demangei, C. globosum, C. hortense, Cladophialophora abundans, Dendryphion hydei, Diaporthe foeniculina, D. pseudophoenicicola, D. pyracanthae, Dictyosporium pandanicola, Dyfrolomyces distoseptatus, Ernakulamia tanakae, Eutypa flavovirens, E. lata, Favolus septatus, Fusarium atrovinosum, F. clavum, Helicosporium luteosporum, Hermatomyces nabanheensis, Hermatomyces sphaericoides, Longipedicellata aquatica, Lophiostoma caudata, L. clematidis-vitalbae, Lophiotrema hydei, L. neoarundinaria, Marasmiellus palmivorus, Megacapitula villosa, Micropsalliota globocystis, M. gracilis, Montagnula thailandica, Neohelicosporium irregulare, N. parisporum, Paradictyoarthrinium diffractum, Phaeoisaria aquatica, Poaceascoma taiwanense, Saproamanita manicata, Spegazzinia camelliae, Submersispora variabilis, Thyronectria caudata, T. mackenziei, Tubeufia chiangmaiensis, T. roseohelicospora, Vaginatispora nypae, Wicklowia submersa, Xanthagaricus necopinatus and Xylaria haemorrhoidalis. The data presented herein are based on morphological examination of fresh specimens, coupled with analysis of phylogenetic sequence data to better integrate taxa into appropriate taxonomic ranks and infer their evolutionary relationships.

Forest transformation from coniferous monocultures to mixed stands is being promoted worldwide, including the introduction of fast-growing broadleaved tree species within native stands. Here, we studied how enrichment of temperate European Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest by North-American northern red oak Quercus rubra impacted macronutrient concentrations in two long-lived and dominant components of the forest understory: bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus and lingonberry V. vitis-idaea. Study sites were located in forest complexes (central Poland) which occupy continuously reforested lands (hereafter ancient forests) as well as post-agricultural lands (recent forests), all suitable for mesic pine forests. Samples of bilberry and lingonberry leaves, stems, and fruits were collected in pine stands and in adjacent Scots pine-red oak stands, in both ancient and recent forests. Concentrations of macronutrients (C, N, P, K, Ca, S, and Mg) in aboveground biomass components were analysed using standardized chemical procedures. The study revealed intra- and interspecific (bilberry vs. lingonberry) differences in concentrations of all nutrients in leaves, stems, and fruits, except for invariable C concentrations. Macronutrient accumulations in plants were decreased by land-use discontinuity and favoured by enrichment of tree stands by Q. rubra. The estimated macronutrient pools were much higher for V. myrtillus than V. vitis-idaea in all forest types studied. They were lower in forests enriched with Q. rubra, both ancient (up to 25.5% for bilberry and 99.9% for lingonberry) and recent (46.9% and 99.9%, respectively), as well as in recent pine forest (46.6% and 81.1%, respectively) than in ancient pine forest. Higher K and S pools (39.3% and 6.5%, respectively) noted for bilberry in an ancient forest with Q. rubra were exceptions. Despite more effective accumulations of elements at the species level, macronutrient pools of Vaccinium myrtillus and V. vitis-idaea decreased significantly in the presence of introduced Q. rubra due to negative impacts of this broadleaved tree on bilberry and lingonberry cover and biomass. Therefore, the limitation of alien Q. rubra planting in sites of mesic pine forest with the abundant occurrence of V. myrtillus and/or V. vitis-idaea is recommended. Graphic abstract

Proper estimation of the herb layer annual net primary production (ANPP) can help to appreciate the role of this layer in carbon assimilation and nutrient cycling. Simple methods of ANPP estimation often understate its value. More accurate methods take into account biomass increments of individual species but are more laborious. We conducted our study in an oak-hornbeam forest (site area 12 ha) dominated by beech in NW Poland during two growing seasons (2010 and 2011). We collected herb layer biomass from 7 to 10 square frames (0.6 × 0.6 m). We collected plant biomass every week in April and May and every two weeks for the rest of the growing season. We compared six methods of calculating ANPP. The highest current-year standing biomass (1st method of ANPP calculation) was obtained on May 15, 2010—37.8 g m−2 and May 7, 2011—41.0 g m−2. The highest values of ANPP were obtained by the 6th method based on the sum of the highest products of shoot biomass and density for individual species: 74.3 g m−2 year−1 in 2010 and 94.0 g m−2 year−1 in 2011. The spring ephemeral Anemone nemorosa had the highest share of ANPP with 50% of the total ANPP. Two summer-greens, Galeobdolon luteum and Galium odoratum, each had a ca. 10% share of ANPP. The best results of ANPP calculation resulted from laborious tracking of dynamics of biomass and density of individual shoots.

The use of electricity in transport is one of the great hopes in the fight against climate change. However, electric cars require significant amounts of lithium, an element which the world's largest reservoirs are in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. The impact of mining in this area remains poorly recognized. Taking into account Atacama?s natural, cultural and scientific value, it is crucial to redefine the current assessment of the potential benefits and threats resulting from the exploitation of lithium deposits. The Atacama?s floristic, faunistic and geological values co-create an ecosystem sensitive to interference, which should be treated with special care under changing climate. Until now, however, politics and the economy have marginalized nature protection activities. Social awareness increase related to the lithium battery production should go hand in hand with the intensification of work on the wide use of compensation actions and increasing the recycling capacity of lithium batteries. Wykorzystanie energii elektrycznej w transporcie stanowi jedną z wielkich nadziei w walce ze zmianami klimatycznymi. Budowa samochodow elektrycznych wymaga jednak znacznych ilości litu, pierwiastka, ktorego najwieksze na świecie rezerwuary znajdują sie na pustyni Atakama w polnocnym Chile. Wplyw gornictwa na ten obszar pozostaje slabo udokumentowany. Biorąc pod uwage przyrodniczą, kulturową i naukową wartośc Atakamy nalezy zredefiniowac dotychczasowe podejście do potencjalnych korzyści i zagrozen wynikających z eksploatacji chilijskich zloz litu. Walory florystyczne, faunistyczne oraz geologiczne Atakamy wspoltworzą bowiem wrazliwy na ingerencje ekosystem, ktory w obliczu postepujących zmian klimatycznych powinien byc otoczony szczegolną troską. Do tej pory jednak polityka i gospodarka marginalizowaly dzialania związane z ochroną przyrody. Wzrost świadomości spolecznej związanej z procesem produkcji baterii litowych powinien iśc w parze z intensyfikacją prac nad szerokim zastosowaniem dzialan kompensacyjnych oraz zwiekszeniem mozliwości recyklingu baterii litowych.

Bryophytes comprise an important element of temperate forest biodiversity and functioning. Although numerous studies reported impacts of alien tree species on understorey vegetation, few focused on impacts on bryophytes. Here we checked whether three invasive tree species in Europe (Prunus serotina Ehrh., Quercus rubra L. and Robinia pseudoacacia L.) influence terricolous bryophyte communities, alpha and beta diversity, and cover. We used a set of 186 study plots in western Poland with data on the cover of bryophytes species, as well as light availability, soil C:N ratio and pH. We found that light availability was the main driver of bryophyte species richness, cover and composition. Poor Pinus sylvestris L. forests invaded by P. serotina hosted more species and higher species richness than non-invaded P. sylvestris forests, while forests invaded by Q. rubra and R. pseudoacacia hosted fewer species than native forest types. Low differences among forest types studied resulted from small pools of species and the presence of generalist species. Fagus sylvatica L. forest, Q. rubra and R. pseudoacacia forests hosted the smallest number of species, while the most species rich stands were poor P. sylvestris forest invaded by P. serotina and non-invaded P. sylvestris forests. We concluded that light limitation by invasive species might be more important than dominant tree species identity in limiting terricolous bryophyte species richness and abundance. This requires further studies, accounting for varied abundances of invasive tree species. Therefore, the conservation of sites with high terricolous bryophyte biodiversity needs to be focused on canopy cover.

Despite good recognition of distributions and spread mechanisms of the three most invasive trees in Europe (Prunus serotina,Quercus rubraandRobinia pseudoacacia), their impacts on forest biodiversity are unevenly recognized. Most studies cover only taxonomic alpha diversity, and only a single study included functional and phylogenetic diversity. Using a set of 186 study plots in western Poland we assessed the impacts of these invasive tree species on the alpha and beta taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity of understory vascular plants. Alpha diversity was higher inR. pseudoacaciaforests and lower inQ. rubraforests compared to mature native forests. Compared to non-invaded plantations and forests, alpha diversity was higher inP. sylvestrisplantations invaded byP. serotina, but lower in invaded nutrient-poorP. sylvestrisforests. Alien species richness was higher and beta diversity was lower in forests invaded byP. serotinaorR. pseudoacaciathan in non-invaded forests. In contrast, beta diversity was higher inQ. rubraforests than in native forests. We proved that invaded forests differed from non-invaded forests in species composition, but not always with decreased alpha and beta diversity. Impacts of particular invasive species also depended on the reference ecosystem properties (here mature native forests, which did not always have the highest biodiversity), which is a source of inconsistency in previous studies, usually referring to single native ecosystem types.

Seasonal fluctuations of light availability, nutrient concentrations, and moisture affect plant population traits like density, standing biomass, and flowering. We analyzed seasonal changes of density and shoot biomass of the four most frequent herb species growing in an oak–hornbeam forest community, i.e., Anemone nemorosa, Ficaria verna, Galeobdolon luteum, and Galium odoratum. In 2010 and 2011 plant biomass was harvested from 7 to 10 randomly situated square sample plots (0.36 m2) in the homogenous oak–hornbeam forest community every week in the spring and every two weeks in the summer and autumn. The highest abundance of Anemone nemorosa reached over 1000 shoots per m2, of Ficaria verna 459.5 shoots per m2, of Galium odoratum 83.6 shoots per m2, and of Galeobdolon luteum 98.4 shoots per m2 (means for 2010 and 2011, based on all sample plots). We did not observe negative correlation between density and shoot biomass. Growth rates of vegetative shoot biomass amounted to 0.857 mg day−1 for Anemone nemorosa, 0.467 mg day−1 for Ficaria verna, 0.722 mg day−1 for Galium odoratum, and 0.448 mg day−1 for Galeobdolon luteum (means for 2010 and 2011). Spring ephemerals had much higher densities of shoots than summer-greens. Summer-greens reached higher biomass of individual shoots than spring ephemerals. Flowering shoots constituted only 4, 2, and 11% of all shoots for A. nemorosa, F. verna, and G. odoratum, respectively. More resource availability resulting in high shoot biomass did not translate to higher share of flowering shoots.

The primary producers and processes of matter and energy flow, reflected by the soil enzyme activity, are the basics of all ecosystem functioning processes. This paper reviews the relationships between the plant diversity, the physicochemical substrate parameters, and the soil enzymatic activity in novel ecosystems of the urban–industrial landscape, where the factors driving soil enzyme activity are not fully understood and still need to be studied. The relationship between the biotic and abiotic factors in the development of novel ecosystems on de novo established habitats, e.g., sites of post-mineral excavation, are shaped in ways unknown from the natural and the semi-natural habitats. The main criteria of de novo established ecosystems are the vegetation patches of the non-analogous species composition created as a result of human impact. The non-analogous species assemblages are associated with different microorganism communities because the biomass and the biochemistry of soil organic matter influence the enzyme activity of soil substrates. Moreover, the soil enzyme activity is an indicator that can dynamically reflect the changes in the microbial community structure dependent on the best-adapted plant species, thanks to the particular traits and individual adaptive adjustments of all the plant species present. This way, soil enzyme activity reflects the sum and the interactions of the elements of the ecosystem structure, irrespective of the vegetation history and the habitat origin.

Key message We identified the effect of microclimatic conditions on soil mite communities (Mesostigmata) during the decomposition of broadleaved and coniferous litter. The abundance, species richness, and diversity of mite communities decreased from spring to autumn regardless of litter quality and was related to changes in temperature and precipitation. Context Litter decomposition is one of the fundamental soil-supporting processes in terrestrial ecosystems. However, there is still a lack of knowledge on some general patterns of the relationships between litter quality (tree species), microclimate, and structure of soil mite assemblages. Aims The study aimed to analyze the impact of climatic conditions (temperature and precipitation) on mesostigmatid mite communities in the litter of 11 tree species through the vegetation season. Methods The experiment tested litter decomposition of 11 different tree species (693 litterbags), for seven consecutive months (April-October) under homogenous Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) canopy monocultures in common garden conditions. Soil mites were extracted in Tullgren funnels. Results Mesostigmatid mite abundance was positively correlated with the temperature of the sampling month and negatively with the temperature of the previous month. Species richness depended on the sampling month temperature. Changes in litter mass loss in late autumn (after litterfall) and overwinter were important for colonization of litterbags by soil mesostigmatid mites in the following spring. Conclusions Changes in climatic conditions, i.e., temperature and precipitation between the sampling months (during the following vegetation period), may cause significant changes in mesostigmatid mite abundance and thus may impact ecosystem functions. The winter period is important for mesostigmatid mite abundance in the following vegetation period.

Beech (Fagus spp.) is one of the most common tree species in Europe and Western Asia. The implementation of sustainable forest Operations (SFOs) in beech forests is therefore crucial in terms of sustainable forest management. This review summarises the state of the art concerning time-motion studies carried out in beech forests, defining the work productivity and the related costs of different harvesting systems applied in these stands. The main focus in recent years on felling and processing operations has been the introduction of fully mechanised systems in beech forests, obtaining satisfactory results in terms of work productivity. However, the working performance is still lower than in coniferous stands. Skidding and forwarding resulted in suitable techniques for ground-based extraction, both showing a clear inclination towards increasing working performance when applying higher levels of mechanisation. Aerial extraction by cable yarders is particularly important in beech forests, considering that these are often located in steep terrains. Further efforts should be dedicated to enhancing the training for operators to extend the application of aerial extraction systems, which ensures good levels of work productivity and limited soil disturbances. In summary, this review aimed to give a clear insight into forest operations in beech forests which could be useful for forest managers, forest engineers and researchers in the sector of sustainable forest operations.

The importance of mineral elements, both in animal and plant nutrition, has been well recognized, but, in the case of sedges, the mineral composition is relatively poorly known. Studies usually relate to the content of the elements in sedge communities, or sward or hay communities with sedge participation, and rarely of Carex representatives. The objective of our study was to determine the concentrations of C, N, Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Si, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Cr and Ni in the biomass of 11 Carex species commonly occurring on natural sites of Central European lowland. Interspecific differentiations have been observed in concentrations of the major and trace elements among studied sedge species. The elemental composition of examined Carex species is diversified but generally similar to the composition of grasses. The study shows that sedges can increase fodder value and, therefore, they should be considered in meadow management as a valuable component of economically important meadow communities. Moreover, the data reported herein can be used for modelling the phytoaccumulation of various elements in the biomass of sedges. This will help in creating different patches suitable for obtaining adequate fodder. Our results can supplement current knowledge concerning the fodder value of meadows with sedge participation.

Despite increasing use of trait-based approaches in community ecology, most studies do not account for intraspecific variability of functional traits. Although numerous studies investigated functional traits of species with high economic value, the intraspecific and interspecific (caused by species identity) trait variability of forest understory herbs is still poorly understood. We aimed to assess the variability of specific leaf area (SLA), total leaf area, aboveground biomass and leaf mass fraction among 167 forest understory plant species, and the level of variability explained by species identity and collection site. We hypothesized that the level of intraspecific variability of SLA is underestimated in commonly used trait databases and that the interspecific variability (caused by species identity) is greater than intraspecific variability (site-specific). Our study revealed higher interspecific than intraspecific variability of the traits studied. We also confirmed that level of intraspecific variability available in the LEDA database is underestimated. We confirmed that species identity was the main factor determining the values of all the traits studied, and site-specific random effects explained lower amounts of variation in traits. Use of trait values from databases not acknowledging intraspecific variability is biased by uncertainty about this variability. For that reason, our analysis used mean trait values to reduce uncertainty of the results in the study conducted to assess human impacts on ecosystems. Thus, our study might support the assumption that level of intraspecific variability of functional traits is lower than interspecific variability.

Although Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is one of the most economically important European timber trees, there is still insufficient data about biomass variability and its relationships with stand features. Therefore, we aimed: (1) to develop biomass models for different aboveground biomass components at tree and stand levels, as well as biomass conversion and expansion factors (BCEFs), (2) to assess the relationships between stand parameters and aboveground biomass and BCEFs and (3) to compare stand biomass obtained using BCEFs with models developed based on stand parameters (age, basal area, stand volume and mean height). Using a chronosequence (3–117 years old) of 120 plots within even-aged pure Scots pine stands and 791 sample trees, we prepared tree- and stand-level allometric equations and BCEFs for aboveground biomass determination. Using stand age, density, stand volume and mean height, we prepared a set of models for biomass and BCEFs. Our study indicated that stand biomass increased with increasing height, volume and age and with decreasing stand density during stand development. Stand-level models provided better accuracy than BCEF-based models. The best predictors of biomass were stand volume and mean height. We also confirmed highly dynamic increases in stand biomass and decreases in BCEFs in the youngest phase of stand growth and relative stabilization in later stages of Scots pine stand development. The models obtained may be used in large-scale forest biomass inventories and increase our knowledge of carbon sequestration in forest biomass.

Abandoned agricultural lands in Central and Northern Europe undergo a quite rapid secondary succession of woody species, especially silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) as a pioneer tree species. Such a process is desirable both from natural and economic point of views, as afforestation involves a change to the entire ecosystem and, in particular, the transformation of anthropogenic habitats typical for agriculture into habitats similar to a natural forest. In the present study, we report the chemical properties of soils under birch stands that naturally regenerated on abandoned agricultural lands and answer the question of whether silver birch modifies the chemical properties of soils over a (relatively short—17 years) time and with depth in the soil profile. The research investigated the natural secondary succession of silver birch on 28 study plots established as a chronosequence in seven locations in Central Poland. The age of the stands ranged from 2 to 17 years. We analysed the contents of selected micro- and macroelements and heavy metals at three depths in the soil profile. The chemical properties of former agricultural soils covered with newly established silver birch stands, taking into account the depth in the soil profile, demonstrated tendencies to change over the time. In the first age class of birch stands, the stock of investigated nutrients in the soil was higher compared to the following age classes. Statistically significant differences were noted in the case of Cu and Cr. Along with the age of birch stands (age class IV), there was a tendency for stock of the analysed nutrients to grow, which can be associated with an increase in aboveground biomass and root system development. The changes in the contents of the macro- and microelements, as well as heavy metals, were characterised by a gradual increase of the elements analysed in the upper layer of the soil that, in the years following the birch influence on the soil, starts having an effect on the deeper layers. In the case of Cu, Pb, Cd, Ni and Cr, there was a statistically significant change in the depth of the soil. Longer chronosequences should be observed to see a clear trajectory in soil chemistry changes with birch stand ages.

Human activity is affecting and transforming the natural environment, changing the ecosystem mosaic and natural biogeochemical processes in urban-industrial landscapes. Among the anthropogenic ecosystems, there are many present features of Novel Ecosystems (NE), e.g., the de novo created habitats on post-mineral excavation sites. The biological nature of the functional mechanisms of Novel Ecosystems is mostly unknown. In natural and semi-natural ecosystems, biodiversity is considered as the primary element influencing ecosystem processes and functioning. The preliminary studies conducted on post-mineral excavation sites have shown that, in poor oligotrophic habitats, the species composition of the assembled vascular plants is non-analogous, distinctive, and not found in natural and semi-natural habitats. This paper aims to present the gaps between scientific identification of the biological mechanisms driving ecosystem processes and functioning (including the expanding areas of Novel Ecosystems created de novo). Among the identified gaps, the following issues should be listed. The detailed identification and understanding of the processes and biodiversity-dependent functioning of Novel Ecosystems is crucial for proper environmental management, particularly when facing the challenges of ecological constraints and of global change. The ecology of Novel Ecosystems is a social and economic issue because of the relationships with densely populated urban-industrial areas.

(1) The focus on floral functional traits and their variability has been significantly lower than when compared to other plant organs. Here, we focused on the variability of four novel floral chemical traits. We aimed to assess the level of interspecific variability of total non-structural carbohydrates (TNC) and total phenolic compounds (TPh) in the flowers of woody species. (2) We collected data on 70 species of temperate trees and shrubs. We also assessed the intraspecific level of variability by collecting flowers from the high-light and low-light parts of the crown. (3) We found a phylogenetic signal in the variability of starch and TPh. We did not observe statistically significant differences or biologically significant trends between the high-light and low-light parts of the crown. We detected a low impact of light availability on the intraspecimen variability of the TNC and TPh contents. (4) Low intraspecimen variability allows for a more reliable extrapolation of measurements in cases of interspecific comparisons and can be used to better describe the reproductive strategies of different woody species.

• Key message Invasive tree species alter taxonomic diversity and functioning of forest shrub layers: Prunus serotina increases shrub layer biomass two to three times but decreases its biodiversity, Robinia pseudoacacia slightly increases shrub layer biomass and has no effect on its biodiversity, while Quercus rubra both biomass and biodiversity of the shrub layer. • Context Although the impact of invasive trees on understory biodiversity is known, very little data exist about their influence on shrub layer biodiversity and productivity. • Aims To assess impacts of Prunus serotina Ehrh., Quercus rubra L., and Robinia pseudoacacia L. on shrub layer aboveground biomass, species composition, and alpha diversity. • Methods We measured stand structures in a set of 168 study plots established in Wielkopolski National Park (W Poland), and we compared biomass and diversity metrics using generalized mixed-effects linear models. • Results We found the lowest aboveground biomass of shrub layers in Q. rubra forests. P. sylvestris forests invaded by P. serotina had two to three times higher aboveground biomass than non-invaded forests. R. pseudoacacia forests had 27.8% higher shrub layer biomass than Quercus-Acer-Tilia forests. We found negative impacts of Q. rubra and negligible impacts of R. pseudoacacia on shrub layer alpha diversity metrics. However, the effect of Q. rubra was similar to native F. sylvatica. P. serotina negatively affected functional diversity, but its effects were lower in rich P. sylvestris forests than in poor P. sylvestris forests. • Conclusion The introduction of alien tree species alters ecosystem services and species diversity of shrub layers. The direction and magnitude of these alterations are alien species-specific and context-dependent. Therefore, their management should account for their impacts.

In the past, ecological research mainly omitted the sexual and developmental variability of mite communities, and therefore could not fully reflect the actual state and function of mite communities in the ecosystems studied. The aim here was to analyze how habitat conditions (mixed vs. monoculture stands) and single-species litter of 14 tree species (in mixed stands) affect the sex and developmental stages of Mesostigmata mites living on the decomposing litter. The research was conducted in 2011–2016, at the Bełchatów Lignite Mine external spoil heap (Central Poland) in mixed stands growing on the spoil heap, as well as in pine and birch monoculture stands growing on the spoil heap and an adjacent forest area. We found significant influences of habitat on females, males and juveniles. Additionally, we found that soil mean temperature had a significant effect on males and juveniles, but not on females. Moreover, despite the insignificant influence of litter species on mite communities, we found that percentage litter mass loss significantly affected female and juvenile mites. Taking into account habitat type, the percentage litter mass loss significantly affected female and male mites, but not juveniles. The mite abundance calculated per dry litter mass usually gradually increased during decomposition. Interestingly, the highest mean female, male and juvenile abundances were recorded in birch stands growing on the adjacent forest area; however, juvenile mites were also very numerous in mixed stands on spoil heap. Therefore, our results confirm that mixed stands on post-mining areas are a potentially better habitat for development of mesostigmatid communities compared to monocultures, among others by relatively higher humidity and lower temperatures.

Juglans regia L. is a species of great importance for environmental management due to attractive wood and nutritious fruits, but also high invasive potential. Thus, uncertainties connected with its range shift are essential for environmental management. We aimed to predict the future climatic optimum of J. regia in Europe under changing climate, to assess the most important climatic factors that determine its potential distribution, and to compare the results obtained among three different global circulation models (GCMs). We used distribution data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and completed it with data from the literature. Using the MaxEnt algorithm, we prepared a species distribution model for the years 2061–2080 using 19 bioclimatic variables. We applied three emission scenarios, expressed by representative concentration pathways (RCPs): RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 and three GCMs: HadGEM2-ES, IPSL-CM5A-LR, and MPI-SM-LR. Our study predicted northward shift of the species, with simultaneous distribution loss at the southern edge of the current range, driven by increasing climate seasonality. Temperature seasonality and temperature annual range were the predictors of highest importance. General trends are common for the projections presented, but the variability of our projections among the GCMs or RCPs applied (predicted range will contract from 17.4 to 84.6% of the current distribution area) shows that caution should be maintained while managing J. regia populations. Adaptive measures should focus on maintaining genetic resources and assisted migration at the southern range edge, due to range contraction. Simultaneously, at the northern edge of the range, J. regia turns into an invasive species, which may need risk assessments and control of unintended spread.

• Key message Decomposition of forest herb species litter was not always completed in less than a year and was not always faster than decomposition of tree leaf litter in an oak-hornbeam forest in Western Poland. Litter decomposition of herbaceous plants is connected with their life strategy and functional traits of their leaves. • Context Forest understories are frequently ignored in ecological research on decomposition, although they play an important role in biomass and nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems. • Aims We hypothesized that the decomposition process of herbaceous species was completed in less than a year, as opposed to tree leaf litter. The second aim of our study was to determine if life strategy affects the rate of litter decomposition. • Methods We performed the decomposition experiment in the oak-hornbeam forest in Czmoń (Western Poland) using the litter bag method to determine decay constants (k) for all species studied. The influence of species identity, functional group, and functional traits of leaves and other effects on the decomposition process was assessed. • Results The decomposition process was significantly dependent on the functional group of plants, time of exposure in the field, species identity, and precipitation. We found a significant correlation between leaf traits and decay rates of the species studied. • Conclusion Litter decomposition of herbaceous plants is connected with their life strategy and functional traits of their leaves in an oak-hornbeam forests.

Background Multi-purpose use of forests in a sustainable way forces a recognition of how introduction of alien woody species in forests with different land use histories affect native plants other than trees. Lingonberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea is an important understory component of temperate and boreal forests and provider of valuable non-wood forest products. Here we studied effects of land use changes and introduction of Northern red oak Quercus rubra on lingonberry in mesic Scots pine forests (in central Poland). We measured lingonberry cover, height of shoots, biomass of stems and leaves, and fruit productivity. Shoots were collected within 200 research plots located in recent and ancient Scots pine forests, with and without Q. rubra. Results We found that V. vitis-idaea reached lower cover, aboveground biomass and fruit production in recent than ancient forests and in forests with than without Q. rubra. The fruit production in recent pine forest was only 2% of that reported in ancient pine forest, and V. vitis-idaea did not reproduce generatively in forests with Q. rubra. Biomass and carbon sequestration of V. vitis-idaea in forests with alien (invasive) trees decreased by 75% compared to ancient pine forest. Effects were also clear at the individual shoot level – in less suitable conditions we found taller heights and higher biomass allocation into stems than foliage. Biomass allocation in fruiting and non-fruiting shoots in pine forests was also different – less of the dry biomass of fruiting shoots was allocated to leaves than to stems. Conclusions In the age of high interest in ecosystem services and discussions about usage of alien tree species as alternatives in forest management, our results clearly indicate disruption of ecosystem services provided by V. vitis-idaea in the presence of Q. rubra. Lingonberry benefited from the continuity of forest land use, however, regardless of land-use legacy, alien tree introduction led to decline in abundance of species crucial for ecosystem functioning. Therefore, to maintain valuable native species and for conservation of ecosystem services delivery, we suggest limiting the introduction of Q. rubra in areas with abundant V. vitis-idaea, especially in forests with continuous forest land-use history.

One of the most important sources of invasiveness is species’ functional traits and their variability. However there are still few studies on invasive tree species traits conducted along resource gradients that allow for a comparison of acquisitive and conservative strategies. We aimed to assess the differences in trait variation among native alien conservative and alien acquisitive tree species along resource availability gradients (soil fertility and light availability) and to assess the traits variability of the species studied along resources availability gradients. Our study compared invasive tree species in Europe (Prunusserotina Ehrh. Quercusrubra L. and Robiniapseudoacacia L.) with their native competitors (Acerpseudoplatanus L. A.platanoides L. Quercuspetraea (Matt.) Liebl. and Fagussylvatica L.). The study was conducted on 1329 seedlings and saplings collected in a system of 372 study plots in W Poland. For each individual we assessed leaf stem and root mass ratios total biomass leaf area ratio specific leaf area and projected leaf area. Two invasive species (P.serotina and R.pseudoacacia) represented a more acquisitive strategy than native species – along litter pH and light availability gradients these species had higher leaf mass fraction specific leaf area and leaf area ratio. In contrast Q.rubra had the highest total biomass and root mass fraction. Alien species usually had higher coefficients of variation of studied traits. This suggests that relatively high projected leaf area as a way of filling space and outcompeting native species may be reached in two ways – biomass allocation to leaves and control of leaf morphology or by overall growth rate. High variability of invasive species traits also suggests randomness in seedling survival which similarly to the neutral theory of invasion highlights the necessity of including randomness in modelling biological invasions.

Disturbance is claimed to be one of the most important triggers of biological invasions. There is a lack of data about disturbance impacts on the youngest life stage of invasive trees and shrubs. Thus, we aimed to assess the role of disturbances in shaping responses of natural regeneration of three model invasive species—Prunus serotina Ehrh., Quercus rubra L., and Robinia pseudoacacia L.—to disturbances in forest plant communities. Our study was conducted over 3 years on 372 study plots (100 m2), across nine types of temperate forests in Wielkopolski National Park (Poland). Disturbance was assessed using ecological indicator values for disturbance severity and frequency. Our study revealed the high importance of disturbance on species composition of understory vegetation. We also found relationships between ecological success (density and biomass of natural regeneration) of invaders and disturbance indices. These models were statistically significant but their effect sizes were low. Due to the low effect sizes, we can state only limited conclusions about impact of disturbance on ecological success of invasive species natural regeneration. The results suggest that for seedlings (up to 50 cm height—threshold between understory and shrub layer) disturbance, a leading factor in biological invasions of numerous taxa, has a small role in this case. Thus, we may assume that their ecological success is connected with stochastic processes in populations of the invader’s seedlings, rather than with stochastic release from competition caused by disturbances.

Background Senescence, despite its destructive character, is a process that is precisely-regulated. The control of senescence is required to achieve remobilization of resources, a principle aspect of senescence. Remobilization allows plants to recapture valuable resources that would otherwise be lost to the environment with the senescing organ. Autophagy is one of the critical processes that is switched on during senescence. This evolutionarily conserved process plays dual, antagonistic roles. On the one hand, it counteracts instantaneous cell death and allows the process of remobilization to be set in motion, while on the other hand, it participates in the degradation of cellular components. Autophagy has been demonstrated to occur in many plant species during the senescence of leaves and flower petals. Little is known, however, about the senescence process in other ephemeral organs, such as fine roots, whose lifespan is also relatively short. We hypothesized that, like the case of seasonal leaf senescence, autophagy also plays a role in the senescence of fine roots, and that both processes are synchronized in their timing. Results We evaluated which morphological and cytological symptoms are universal or unique in the senescence of fine roots and leaves. The results of our study confirmed that autophagy plays a key role in the senescence of fine roots, and is associated also with the process of cellular components degradation. In both organs, structures related to autophagy were observed, such as autophagic bodies and autophagosomes. The role of autophagy in the senescence of these plant organs was further confirmed by an analysis of ATG gene expression and protein detection. Conclusions The present study is the first one to examine molecular mechanisms associated with the senescence of fine roots, and provide evidence that can be used to determine whether senescence of fine roots can be treated as another example of developmentally programmed cell death (dPCD). Our results indicate that there is a strong similarity between the senescence of fine roots and other ephemeral organs, suggesting that this process occurs by the same autophagy-related mechanisms in all plant ephemeral organs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12870-018-1439-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.