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Background: The oleaginous yeast Cutaneotrichosporon oleaginosus represents one of the most promising microbial platforms for resource-efficient and scalable lipid production, with the capacity to accept a wide range of carbohydrates encapsulated in complex biomass waste or lignocellulosic hydrolysates. Currently, data related to molecular aspects of the metabolic utilisation of oligomeric carbohydrates are sparse. In addition, comprehensive proteomic information for C. oleaginosus focusing on carbohydrate metabolism is not available., Results: In this study, we conducted a systematic analysis of carbohydrate intake and utilisation by C. oleaginosus and investigated the influence of different di- and trisaccharide as carbon sources. Changes in the cellular growth and morphology could be observed, depending on the selected carbon source. The greatest changes in morphology were observed in media containing trehalose. A comprehensive proteomic analysis of secreted, cell wall-associated, and cytoplasmatic proteins was performed, which highlighted differences in the composition and quantity of secreted proteins, when grown on different disaccharides. Based on the proteomic data, we performed a relative quantitative analysis of the identified proteins (using glucose as the reference carbon source) and observed carbohydrate-specific protein distributions. When using cellobiose or lactose as the carbon source, we detected three- and five-fold higher diversity in terms of the respective hydrolases released. Furthermore, the analysis of the secreted enzymes enabled identification of the motif with the consensus sequence LALL[LA]L[LA][LA]AAAAAAA as a potential signal peptide., Conclusions: Relative quantification of spectral intensities from crude proteomic datasets enabled the identification of new enzymes and provided new insights into protein secretion, as well as the molecular mechanisms of carbo-hydrolases involved in the cleavage of the selected carbon oligomers. These insights can help unlock new substrate sources for C. oleaginosus, such as low-cost by-products containing difficult to utilize carbohydrates. In addition, information regarding the carbo-hydrolytic potential of C. oleaginosus facilitates a more precise engineering approach when using targeted genetic approaches. This information could be used to find new and more cost-effective carbon sources for microbial lipid production by the oleaginous yeast C. oleaginosus., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Morphology of organisms is an essential source of evidence for taxonomic decisions and understanding of ecology and evolutionary history. The geometric structure (i.e., numeric description of shape) provides richer and mathematically different information about an organism's morphology than linear measurements. A little is known on how these two sources of morphological information (shape vs. size) contribute to the identification of organisms when implied simultaneously. This study hypothesized that combining geometric information on the outline with linear measurements results in better species identification than either evidence alone can provide. As a test system for our research, we used the microscopic spores of fungi from the genus Subulicystidium (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota). We analyzed 2D spore shape data via elliptic Fourier and principal component analyses. Using flexible discriminant analysis, we achieved the highest species identification success rate for a combination of shape and size descriptors (64.7%). The shape descriptors alone predicted species slightly better than size descriptors (61.5% vs. 59.1%). We conclude that adding geometric information on the outline to linear measurements improves the identification of the organisms. Despite the high relevance of spore traits for the taxonomy of fungi, they were previously rarely analyzed with the tools of geometric morphometrics. Therefore, we supplement our study with an open access protocol for digitizing and summarizing fungal spores' shape and size information. We propagate a broader use of geometric morphometric analysis for microscopic propagules of fungi and other organisms., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Ustilago maydis is a Basidiomycota fungus, in which very little is known about its mechanisms of cell survival and death. To date, only the role of metacaspase1, acetate and hydrogen peroxide as inducers of cell death has been investigated. In the present work, we analyzed the lifespan of U. maydis compared with other species like Sporisorium reilianum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Yarrowia lipolytica, and we observed that U. maydis has a minor lifespan. We probe the addition of low concentrations metformin and curcumin to the culture media, and we observed that both prolonged the lifespan of U. maydis, a result observed for the first time in a phytopathogen fungus. However, higher concentrations of curcumin were toxic for the cells, and interestingly induced the yeast-to-mycelium dimorphic transition. The positive effect of metformin and curcumin appears to be related to an inhibition of the mechanistic Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, increase expression of autophagy genes and reducing of reactive oxygen species. These data indicate that U. maydis may be a eukaryotic model organism to elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying apoptotic and necrosis pathways, and the lifespan increase caused by metformin and curcumin., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of FEMS.)

Basidiomata of Phallales have a diversified morphology with adhesive gleba that exudes an odor, usually unpleasant that attracts mainly insects, which disperse the basidiospores. The genus Blumenavia belongs to the family Clathraceae and, based on morphological features, only two species are currently recognized: B. rhacodes and B. angolensis. However, the morphological characters adopted in species delimitations within this genus are inconsistent, and molecular data are scarce. The present study aimed to review and identify informative characters that contribute to the delimitation of Blumenavia species. Exsiccates from America and Africa were analyzed morphologically, and molecularly, using ITS, LSU, ATP6, RPB2 and TEF-1α markers for Maximum Parsimony, Bayesian and Maximum likelihood analyses, and also for coalescent based species delimitations (BP&P), as well as for bPTP, PhyloMap, Topo-phylogenetic and Geophylogenetic reconstructions. According to our studies, seven species can be considered in the genus: B. rhacodes and B. angolensis are maintained, B. usambarensis and B. toribiotalpaensis are reassessed, and three new species are proposed, B. baturitensis Melanda, M.P. Martín & Baseia, sp. nov., B. crucis-hellenicae G. Coelho, Sulzbacher, Grebenc & Cortez, sp. nov., and B. heroica Melanda, Baseia & M.P. Martín, sp. nov. Blumenavia rhacodes is typified by selecting a lectotype and an epitype. Macromorphological characters considered informative to segregate and delimit the species through integrative taxonomy include length of the basidiomata, color, width and presence of grooves on each arm as well as the glebifer position and shape. These must be clearly observed while the basidiomata are still fresh. Since most materials are usually analyzed after dehydration and deposit in collections, field techniques and protocols to describe fugacious characters from fresh specimen are demanded, as well as the use of molecular analysis, in order to better assess recognition and delimitation of species in Blumenavia., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The fungal mycelium represents the essence of the fungal lifestyle, and understanding how a mycelium is constructed is of fundamental importance in fungal biology and ecology. Previous studies have examined initial developmental patterns or focused on a few strains, often mutants of model species, and frequently grown under non-harmonized growth conditions; these factors currently collectively hamper systematic insights into rules of mycelium architecture. To address this, we here use a broader suite of fungi (31 species including members of the Ascomycota, Basidiomycota and Mucoromycota), all isolated from the same soil, and tested for ten architectural traits under standardized laboratory conditions. We find great variability in traits among the saprobic fungal species, and detect several clear tradeoffs in mycelial architecture, for example between internodal length and hyphal diameter. Within the constraints so identified, we document otherwise great versatility in mycelium architecture in this set of fungi, and there was no evidence of trait 'syndromes' as might be expected. Our results point to an important dimension of fungal properties with likely consequences for coexistence within local communities, as well as for functional complementarity (e.g. decomposition, soil aggregation).

Planting resistant cultivars is the most economical and effective measure to control wheat stripe rust caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), but the cultivars often lose their resistance due to the emergence of new physiological races. The UV-B-irradiated urediospores of the Pst physiological race CYR32 in China were inoculated on wheat cultivar Guinong 22 for screening virulence-mutant strains. CYR32 and mutant strains (CYR32-5 and CYR32-61) before and after UV-B radiation were used to conduct urediospore morphological and histopathological observations and an investigation of epidemiological components. The results showed that UV-B radiation affected the urediospore morphology of each strain. UV-B radiation inhibited urediospore invasion and hyphal elongation, which mainly manifested as decreases in germination rate, quantities of hyphal branches, haustorial mother cells and haustoria and hyphal length. After wheat cultivar Mingxian 169 was inoculated with the UV-B-irradiated urediospores, the incubation period was prolonged, and the infection efficiency, lesion expansion rate, total sporulation quantity and area under the disease progress curve were reduced. The results demonstrated that CYR32-5 and CYR32-61 may have more tolerance to UV-B radiation than CYR32. The results are significant for understanding mechanisms of Pst virulence variations and implementing sustainable management of wheat stripe rust., (© 2019 The Authors. MicrobiologyOpen published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Taxonomy of Geastrum species in the neotropics has been subject to divergent opinions among specialists. In our study, type collections were reassessed and compared with recent collections in order to delimit species in Geastrum, sect. Myceliostroma, subsect. Epigaea. A thorough review of morphologic features combined with barcode and phylogenetic analyses (ITS and LSU nrDNA) revealed six new species (G. neoamericanum, G. rubellum, G. brunneocapillatum, G. baculicrystallum, G. rubropusillum and G. courtecuissei). In additon, the presence of hairs on the exoperidium, a commonly used feature to diagnose Geastrum species, proved to be ineffective because it is a derived character within subsect. Epigaea., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The quantitative monitoring of airborne urediniospores of Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst) using spore trap devices in wheat fields is an important process for devising strategies early and effectively controlling wheat stripe rust. The traditional microscopic spore counting method mainly relies on naked-eye observation. Because of the great number of trapped spores, this method is labour intensive and time-consuming and has low counting efficiency, sometimes leading to huge errors; thus, an alternative method is required. In this paper, a new algorithm was proposed for the automatic detection and counting of urediniospores of Pst, based on digital image processing. First, images of urediniospores were collected using portable volumetric spore traps in an indoor simulation. Then, the urediniospores were automatically detected and counted using a series of image processing approaches, including image segmentation using the K-means clustering algorithm, image pre-processing, the identification of touching urediniospores based on their shape factor and area, and touching urediniospore contour segmentation based on concavity and contour segment merging. This automatic counting algorithm was compared with the watershed transformation algorithm. The results show that the proposed algorithm is efficient and accurate for the automatic detection and counting of trapped urediniospores. It can provide technical support for the development of online airborne urediniospore monitoring equipment.

Sexual spores are important for the dispersal and population dynamics of fungi. They show remarkable morphological diversity, but the underlying forces driving spore evolution are poorly known. We investigated whether trophic status and substrate associations are associated with morphology in 787 macrofungal genera. We show that both spore size and ornamentation are associated with trophic specialization, so that large and ornamented spores are more probable in ectomycorrhizal than in saprotrophic genera. This suggests that spore ornamentation facilitates attachment to arthropod vectors, which ectomycorrhizal species may need to reach lower soil layers. Elongated spore shapes are more common in saprotrophic taxa, and genera associated with above ground substrates are more likely to have allantoid (curved elongated) spores, probably to lower the risk of wash out by precipitation. Overall, our results suggest that safe arrival on specific substrates is a more important driver of evolution in spore morphology than dispersal per se.

Objectives: To obtain hydrophobin, a Class I hydrophobin gene, Po.hyd from Pleurotus ostreatus, was transformed into the yeast-like cells of Tremella fuciformis using Agrobacterium tumefaciens., Results: The hydrophobin Po.HYD from P. ostreatus was heterogeneously expressed by the yeast-like cells of T. fuciformis. Plasmids harboring the Po.hyd gene driven by endogenous glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase promoter were transformed by A. tumefaciens. The integration and expression of the rPo.HYD in the T. fuciformis cells were confirmed by PCR, Southern blot, fluorescence microscopy and quantitative real-time PCR. SDS-PAGE demonstrated that the rPo.HYD was extracted with the expected MW of 14 kDa. The yield of purified rPo.HYD was 0.58 mg/g dry wt. The protein, with its ability to stabilize oil droplets, exhibited a better emulsifying activity than the typical food emulsifiers Tween 20 and sodium caseinate., Conclusion: Tremella fuciformis can be used as a cell factory to produce hydrophobin on a large scale for the food industry.

Background: Fungal laccase has profound applications in different fields of biotechnology due to its broad specificity and high redox potential. Any successful application of the enzyme requires large scale production. As laccase production is highly dependent on medium components and cultural conditions, optimization of the same is essential for efficient product production., Results: Production of laccase by fungal strain Marasmiellus palmivorus LA1 under solid state fermentation was optimized by the Taguchi design of experiments (DOE) methodology. An orthogonal array (L8) was designed using Qualitek-4 software to study the interactions and relative influence of the seven selected factors by one factor at a time approach. The optimum condition formulated was temperature (28 °C), pH (5), galactose (0.8%w/v), cupric sulphate (3 mM), inoculum concentration (number of mycelial agar pieces) (6Nos.) and substrate length (0.05 m). Overall yield increase of 17.6 fold was obtained after optimization. Statistical optimization leads to the elimination of an insignificant medium component ammonium dihydrogen phosphate from the process and contributes to a 1.06 fold increase in enzyme production. A final production of 667.4 ± 13 IU/mL laccase activity paves way for the application of this strain for industrial applications., Conclusion: Study optimized lignin degrading laccases from Marasmiellus palmivorus LA1. This laccases can thus be used for further applications in different scales of production after analyzing the properties of the enzyme. Study also confirmed the use of taguchi method for optimizations of product production.

Fungal diseases posing a severe threat to the production of pulses, a major protein source, necessitates the need of new highly efficient antifungal agents. The present study was aimed to develop azomethine based nano-fungicides for protecting the crop from fungal pathogens and subsequent yield losses. The protocol for the formation of nano-azomethines was generated and standardized. Technically pure azomethines were transformed into their nano-forms exploiting polyethylene glycol as the surface stabilizer. Characterization was performed by optical (imaging) probe (Zetasizer) and electron probe (TEM) characterization techniques. The mean particle sizes of all nano-fungicides were below 100nm. In vitro fungicidal potential of nano-chemicals was increased by 2 times in comparison to that of conventional sized azomethines against pathogenic fungi, namely, Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia bataticola and Sclerotium rolfsii. The performance of nano-chemicals in pot experiment study was also superior to conventional ones as antifungal agent., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Puccinia horiana Hennings, the causal agent of chrysanthemum white rust, is a worldwide quarantine organism and one of the most important fungal pathogens of Chrysanthemum × morifolium cultivars, which are used for cut flowers and as potted plants in commercial production regions of the world. It was previously reported to be controlled by Lecanicillium lecanii, Cladosporium sphaerospermum, C. uredinicola and Aphanocladium album, due to their antagonistic and hyperparasitic effects. We report novel antagonist species on Puccinia horiana. Fungi isolated from rust pustules in a commercial greenhouse from Villa Guerrero, México, were identified as Cladosporium cladosporioides and Cladosporium pseudocladosporioides based upon molecular analysis and morphological characters. The antagonism of C. cladosporioides and C. pseudocladosporioides on chrysanthemum white rust was studied using light and electron microscopy in vitro at the host/parasite interface. Cladosporium cladosporioides and C. pseudocladosporioides grew towards the white rust teliospores and colonized the sporogenous cells, but no direct penetration of teliospores was observed; however, the structure and cytoplasm of teliospores were altered. The two Cladosporium spp. were able to grow on media containing laminarin, but not when chitin was used as the sole carbon source; these results suggest that they are able to produce glucanases. Results from the study indicate that both Cladosporium species had potential as biological control agents of chrysanthemum white rust., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Ran, an important family of small GTP-binding proteins, has been shown to regulate a variety of important cellular processes in many eukaryotes. However, little is known about Ran function in pathogenic fungi. In this study, we report the identification and functional analysis of a Ran gene (designated PsRan) from Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), an important fungal pathogen affecting wheat production worldwide. The PsRan protein contains all conserved domains of Ran GTPases and shares more than 70% identity with Ran proteins from other organisms, indicating that Ran proteins are conserved in different organisms. PsRan shows a low level of intra-species polymorphism and is localized to the nucleus. qRT-PCR analysis showed that transcript level of PsRan was induced in planta during Pst infection. Silencing of PsRan did not alter Pst virulence phenotype but impeded fungal growth of Pst. In addition, heterologous overexpression of PsRan in plant failed to induce cell death but suppressed cell death triggered by a mouse BAX gene or a Pst Ras gene. Our results suggest that PsRan is involved in the regulation of fungal growth and anti-cell death, which provides significant insight into Ran function in pathogenic fungi.

Bullera species in the Trichosporonales (Tremellomycetes, Agaricomycotina) are phylogenetically distinct from Bullera alba (teleomorph: Bulleromyces albus), the type species of Bullera that belongs to Tremellales. In the present study, the three Bullera species, namely Bullera formosensis, Bullera koratensis and Bullera lagerstroemiae, and Cryptococcus tepidarius belonging to the Trichosporonales are transferred into a new genus Takashimella gen. nov. (MycoBank No. MB 810672) based on sequence analysis of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene, the D1/D2 domains of large subunit (LSU) rRNA gene and the ITS+5.8S rRNA gene sequences. In addition, the genus Cryptotrichosporon is emended to accommodate a novel ballistoconidium-forming species of the Trichosporonales, which is named as Cryptotrichosporon tibetense (type strain CGMCC 2.02614T = CBS 10455T). The MycoBank number of this new species is MB 810688.

The infection process of wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici) on barley (Hordeum vulgare) is often observed as a mesothetic infection type at the seedling stages, and cultivars containing the same major resistance genes often show variation in the level of resistance provided against the same pathogen race or isolate. Thus, robust phenotyping data based on quantification of fungal DNA can improve the ability to elucidate host-pathogen interaction, especially at early time points of infection when disease symptoms are not yet evident. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to determine the amount of fungal DNA relative to host DNA in infected tissue, providing new insights about fungal development and host resistance during the infection process in this pathosystem. The stem rust susceptible 'Steptoe', resistant cultivars containing only Rpg1 ('Beacon', 'Morex', and 'Chevron'), and the resistant line Q21861 containing Rpg1 and the rpg4/Rpg5 complex were evaluated using the traditional 0-to-4 rating scale, fluorescence microscopy, and qPCR. Statistical differences (P<0.05) were observed in fungal development as early as 24 h postinoculation using the qPCR assay. Fungal development observed using fluorescence microscopy displayed the same hierarchal ordering observed using the qPCR assay. The fungal development occurring at 24 and 48 h postinoculation was vastly different than what was expected using the traditional disease phenotyping methodology; with Steptoe appearing more resistant than the barley lines harboring the known Rpg1 and rpg4/Rpg5 resistance complex. These data indicate potential early prehaustorial resistance contributions in a cultivar considered susceptible based on infection type. Moreover, the temporal differences in resistance suggest pre- and post-haustorial resistance mechanisms in the barley-wheat stem rust infection process, indicating potential host genotype contributions related to basal defense during the wheat stem rust infection process.

Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), the causal fungus of wheat stripe rust, was previously reported to be infected by Lecanicillium lecanii, Microdochium nivale and Typhula idahoensis. Here, we report a novel hyperparasite on Pst. This hyperparasitic fungus was identified as Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen.) GA de Vries based on morphological characteristics observed by light and scanning electron microscopy together with molecular data. The hyperparasite reduced the production and viability of urediniospores and, therefore, could potentially be used for biological control of wheat stripe rust.

Lignocellulose facilitates the fungal oxidization of recalcitrant organic pollutants through the extracellular ligninolytic enzymes induced by lignin in wood or other plant tissues. However, available information on this phenomenon is insufficient. Free radical chain reactions during lignin metabolism are important in xenobiotic removal. Thus, the effect of lignin on azo dye decolorization in vivo by Echinodontium taxodii was evaluated. In the presence of lignin, optimum decolorization percentages for Remazol Brilliant Violet 5R, Direct Red 5B, Direct Black 38, and Direct Black 22 were 91.75% (control, 65.96%), 76.89% (control, 43.78%), 43.44% (control, 17.02%), and 44.75% (control, 12.16%), respectively, in the submerged cultures. Laccase was the most important enzyme during biodecolorization. Aside from the stimulating of laccase activity, lignin might be degraded by E. taxodii, and then these degraded low-molecular-weight metabolites could act as redox mediators promoting decolorization of azo dyes. The relationship between laccase and lignin degradation was investigated through decolorization tests in vitro with purified enzyme and dozens of aromatics, which can be derivatives of lignin and can function as laccase mediators or inducers. Dyes were decolorized at triple or even higher rates in certain laccase-aromatic systems at chemical concentrations as low as 10 µM.

Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (PKWS) is a major hotspot of biological diversity in Thailand but its fungal diversity has not been thouroughly explored. A two-year macrofungal study of this remote locality has resulted in the recognition of a new species of a star-shaped gasteroid fungus in the genus Astraeus. This fungus has been identified based on a morphological approach and the molecular study of five loci (LSU nrDNA, 5.8S nrDNA, RPB1, RPB2 and EF1-a). Multigene phylogenetic analysis of this new species places it basal relative to other Astraeus, providing additional evidence for the SE Asian origin of the genus. The fungus is named in honour of Her Majesty Princess Sirindhorn on the occasion the 84th birthday of her father, who have both been supportive of natural heritage studies in Thailand.

microRNA (miRNA) participates in various physiological and biochemical processes in plants by regulating corresponding target genes. NAC [NAM (no apical meristem), ATAF (Arabidopsis transcription activation factor) and CUC (cup-shaped cotyledon)] transcription factors, usually as the targets of miR164, play important roles in the regulation of plant development and responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. In a previous study, the target gene of tae-miR164 in wheat was sequenced through degradome sequencing. In this study, we isolated the full-length cDNA of the candidate target gene, which is a NAC transcription factor gene in the NAM subfamily, and designated it as TaNAC21/22 after bioinformatics analysis. The interaction between TaNAC21/22 and tae-miR164 was confirmed experimentally through co-transformation of both genes in tobacco leaves. Transcript accumulation of TaNAC21/22 and tae-miR164 showed contrasting divergent expression patterns in wheat response to Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst). TaNAC21/22 was confirmed to be located in the nucleus and could function as a transcriptional activator. Silencing of the individual gene showed that TaNAC21/22 negatively regulates resistance to stripe rust. These results indicate that the target of tae-miR164, a novel NAC transcription factor from the NAM subfamily of wheat, plays an important role in regulating the resistance of host plants to stripe rust., (© 2013 BSPP AND JOHN WILEY & SONS LTD.)

Defensins are a large family of small, cysteine-rich, basic proteins, produced by most plants and plant tissues. They have a primary function in defence against fungal disease, although other functions have been described. This study reports the isolation and characterization of a class I secreted defensin (NaD2) from the flowers of Nicotiana alata, and compares its antifungal activity with the class II defensin (NaD1) from N. alata flowers, which is stored in the vacuole. NaD2, like all other class I defensins, lacks the C-terminal pro-peptide (CTPP) characteristic of class II defensins. NaD2 is most closely related to Nt-thionin from N. tabacum (96% identical) and shares 81% identity with MtDef4 from alfalfa. The concentration required to inhibit in vitro fungal growth by 50% (IC50 ) was assessed for both NaD1 and NaD2 for the biotrophic basidiomycete fungi Puccinia coronata f. sp. avenae (Pca) and P. sorghi (Ps), the necrotrophic pathogenic ascomycetes Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum (Fov), F. graminearum (Fgr), Verticillium dahliae (Vd) and Thielaviopsis basicola (Tb), and the saprobe Aspergillus nidulans. NaD1 was a more potent antifungal molecule than NaD2 against both the biotrophic and necrotrophic fungal pathogens tested. NaD2 was 5-10 times less effective at killing necrotrophs, but only two-fold less effective on Puccinia species. A new procedure for testing antifungal proteins is described in this study which is applicable to pathogens with spores that are not amenable to liquid culture, such as rust pathogens. Rusts are the most damaging fungal pathogens of many agronomically important crop species (wheat, barley, oats and soybean). NaD1 and NaD2 inhibited urediniospore germination, germ tube growth and germ tube differentiation (appressoria induction) of both Puccinia species tested. NaD1 and NaD2 were fungicidal on Puccinia species and produced stunted germ tubes with a granular cytoplasm. When NaD1 and NaD2 were sprayed onto susceptible oat plants prior to the plants being inoculated with crown rust, they reduced the number of pustules per leaf area, as well as the amount of chlorosis induced by infection. Similar to observations in vitro, NaD1 was more effective as an antifungal control agent than NaD2. Further investigation revealed that both NaD1 and NaD2 permeabilized the plasma membranes of Puccinia spp. This study provides evidence that both secreted (NaD2) and nonsecreted (NaD1) defensins may be useful for broad-spectrum resistance to pathogens., (© 2013 BSPP AND JOHN WILEY & SONS LTD.)

Model calculations are presented on the horizontal dispersal distance of basidiospores from their source (any typical agaric). The results are compared to old and recent experimental data obtained by sampling on sticky microscope slides placed on soil. I argue that such experimental data alone are insufficient to determine the dispersion kernel because of sampling paucity: Only a minor fraction of the released spores is sampled, and the fate of the rest is unknown. Spore dispersal is determined largely by wind, whereas deposition may be due predominantly to wash-out by rainfall.

Background: Hybridization and reproductive isolation are central to the origin and maintenance of species, and especially for sympatric species, gene flow is often inhibited through barriers that depend upon mating compatibility factors. The anther-smut fungi (genus Microbotryum) serve as models for speciation in the face of sympatry, and previous studies have tested for but not detected assortative mating. In addition, post-mating barriers are indicated by reduced fitness of hybrids, but sources of those barriers (i.e. ecological maladaptation or genetic incompatibilities) have not yet been detected. Here, backcrossing experiments, specifically controlling for the fungal species origins of the mating compatibility factors, were used to investigate reproductive isolation in the recently-derived species Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae and Microbotryum silenes-dioicae., Results: Assortative mating was detected during backcrossing and was manifested by the preferential conjugation of the hybrid-produced gametes with non-hybrid gametes containing mating compatibility factors from the same parental species. Patterns of post-mating performance supported either a level of extrinsic isolation mechanism, where backcross progeny with a higher proportion of the pathogen genome adapted to the particular host environment were favored, or an infection advantage attributed to greater genetic contribution to the hybrid from the M. lychnidis-dioicae genome., Conclusion: The use of controlled backcrossing experiments reveals significant species-specific mating type effects on conjugations between recently-derived sister species, which are likely to play important roles in both maintaining species separation and the nature of hybrids lineages that emerge in sympatry between Microbotryum species.

Microbial lipids are potential alternative feedstock for biofuel and oleochemical industries. The oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides AS 2.1389 is an excellent lipid producer. To attain parameters for the understanding of the lipid production process, we performed continuous cultivation experiments under either carbon or nitrogen limitation. The maintenance coefficient and maximum cell mass yield for this yeast were determined as 5.7 mg glucose/g cell/h and 0.42 g cell/g glucose, respectively, under carbon limitation. Under nitrogen limitation, the highest lipid yield of 0.19 g/g was observed at the dilution rate of 0.02 h(-1) while the highest specific lipid formation rate of 0.058 g/g cell/h at the dilution rate of 0.08 h(-1). A kinetic model of lipid formation under steady state conditions was developed, parameters estimated, and optimal continuous cultivation conditions forecasted. These data should be very helpful to develop and design more efficient bioprocesses for microbial lipid production., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Using a heat-treatment method, two genera of heat-resistant and xerotolerant basidiomycetes were isolated from soil samples. These two genera, Basidioascus and Geminibasidium gen. nov., are morphologically similar and phylogenetically related. The genus Basidioascus originally was described as an ascomycete, but the structures originally interpreted as single-spored asci appear to represent basidiospores. Morphologically both genera are characterized by the lack of a fruiting body, conspicuously granular and deciduous basidia with a unique basal lateral projection and apparently double-walled basidiospores. The basidia, rather than the basidiospores, are forcibly discharged in Basidioascus species but not in Geminibasidium species. In Geminibasidium species a putative basidium arises from a primary cell. These are novel forms of basidia ontogenesis previously unseen in basidiomycetes. The rDNA (SSU + 5.8S + LSU) Bayesian phylogenetic analysis suggests that these fungi are distantly related to Wallemia, another xerotolerant basidiomycete genus commonly found in indoor air dust, dried foods and natural hypersaline environments. Given the physiological similarity and phylogenetic relationships, Basidioascus and Geminibasidium are classified in a new order, Geminibasidiales, and are taxonomically assigned to the class Wallemiomycetes. Based on morphological observations and molecular phylogeny of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), two species of Basidioascus (B. undulatus, B. magus sp. nov.) and two species of Geminibasidium (G. donsium sp. nov., G. hirsutum sp. nov.) are described. A key to these species is provided using micromorphological and cultural characters.

Transcription factors (TFs) play crucial roles in the transcriptional regulation of plant development and defence responses. Increasing evidence has implicated ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3 (EIN3) in the plant defence response to pathogen infection and environmental stimuli. However, the role of EIN3 in wheat resistance to Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst) is not clear. Here, TaEIL1 was isolated by rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) based on a sequence fragment from a wheat-Pst interaction cDNA library. The TaEIL1 protein contains a typical EIN3-binding domain, and transient expression analyses indicated that TaEIL1 is localized in the nucleus. Yeast one-hybrid assay revealed that TaEIL1 exhibits transcriptional activity, and its C-terminus is necessary for the activation of transcription. TaEIL1 transcripts were regulated by environmental stress stimuli and were decreased under salicylic acid (SA) treatment. When wheat leaves were challenged with Pst, the transcript level of TaEIL1 in the compatible interaction was approximately three times higher than that in the incompatible interaction. Knocking down TaEIL1 through the Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) system attenuated the growth of Pst, with shortened hyphae and reduced hyphal branches, haustorial mother cells and colony size. Moreover, enhanced necrosis was triggered by the Pst avirulent race CYR23, indicating that the hypersensitive response was strengthened in TaEIL1-silenced wheat plants. Thus, the up-regulation of defence-related genes and increased sucrose abundance might contribute to the enhanced disease resistance of wheat to the virulent race CYR31. Taken together, the results suggested that the suppression of TaEIL1 transcripts could enhance the resistance of wheat to stripe rust fungus., (© 2013 BSPP and JOHN WILEY & SONS LTD.)

The phylogeny of taxa with poroid and lamellate hymenophores in Auriculariales as yet has not been well studied. Here we sequenced the nLSU and ITS regions of poroid and lamellate representatives from the genera Elmerina, Protodaedalea and Protomerulius to establish the phylogenetic position of these morphologically similar taxa. Our analyses suggest that (i) Elmerina foliacea is divergent from all other Elmerina species sampled; (ii) Protodaedalea hispida (the type of monotypic genus Protodaedalea) and Protomerulius efibulatus should be transferred to Elmerina as E. hispida and E. efibulata respectively; (iii) after exclusion of P. efibulatus, Protomerulius becomes monophyletic and represents the core of a "Protomerulius family" clade that potentially includes species from Tremellodendropsis, Heterochaetella and Protodontia; and (iv) the presence or absence of gloeocystidia serves as the most reliable morphological feature in delimiting Elmerina s.l. and Protomerulius. Concepts of Elmerina s.l. and Protomerulius are redefined, and diagnostic keys for these two genera are provided.

Piriformosporaindica is a basidiomycete fungus colonizing roots of a wide range of higher plants, including crop plants and the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Previous studies have shown that P. indica improves growth, and enhances systemic pathogen resistance in leaves of host plants. To investigate systemic effects within the root system, we established a hydroponic split-root cultivation system for Arabidopsis. Using quantitative real-time PCR, we show that initial P. indica colonization triggers a local, transient response of several defense-related transcripts, of which some were also induced in shoots and in distal, non-colonized roots of the same plant. Systemic effects on distal roots included the inhibition of secondary P. indica colonization. Faster and stronger induction of defense-related transcripts during secondary inoculation revealed that a P. indica pretreatment triggers root-wide priming of defense responses, which could cause the observed reduction of secondary colonization levels. Secondary P. indica colonization also induced defense responses in distant, already colonized parts of the root. Endophytic fungi therefore trigger a spatially specific response in directly colonized and in systemic root tissues of host plants.

Stripe rust caused by the fungus Puccinia striiformis f.sp. tritici (Pst) is a major constraint to wheat production worldwide. The molecular events that underlie Pst pathogenicity are largely unknown. Like all rusts, Pst creates a specialized cellular structure within host cells called the haustorium to obtain nutrients from wheat, and to secrete pathogenicity factors called effector proteins. We purified Pst haustoria and used next-generation sequencing platforms to assemble the haustorial transcriptome as well as the transcriptome of germinated spores. 12,282 transcripts were assembled from 454-pyrosequencing data and used as reference for digital gene expression analysis to compare the germinated uredinospores and haustoria transcriptomes based on Illumina RNAseq data. More than 400 genes encoding secreted proteins which constitute candidate effectors were identified from the haustorial transcriptome, with two thirds of these up-regulated in this tissue compared to germinated spores. RT-PCR analysis confirmed the expression patterns of 94 effector candidates. The analysis also revealed that spores rely mainly on stored energy reserves for growth and development, while haustoria take up host nutrients for massive energy production for biosynthetic pathways and the ultimate production of spores. Together, these studies substantially increase our knowledge of potential Pst effectors and provide new insights into the pathogenic strategies of this important organism.

Xerocomus cyaneibrunnescens, Xerocomus potaroensis, and Xerocomus parvogracilis (Boletales, Basidiomycota) are described as new species from the Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana, in the central Guiana Shield region. These boletes occur in neotropical forests dominated by ectomycorrhizal (ECM) trees in the genus Dicymbe (Fabaceae subfam. Caesalpinioideae). Each species produced basidiomata during a multi-year plot survey, and each was confirmed as an ECM symbiont with one or more leguminous host plant species in Guyana.

Three new species, Cantharellus phasmatis, Cantharellus flavus and Cantharellus spectaculus, all previously considered Cantharellus cibarius, are described in this study. The circumscription of these three species from C. cibarius and other Cantharellus species is supported by morphological differences and nuclear DNA sequence data (nLSU, ITS, TEF1). All were found under Quercus spp. in a small plot in Hixon Forest Park in La Crosse, Wisconsin, emphasizing the need for further taxonomic study of even common and conspicuous genera in North America. In addition, a review of the current state of C. cibarius sensu lato systematics is presented, including a review of the recent elevation of C. cibarius var. roseocanus to the species rank. Taxonomic descriptions and photographs are provided for the newly described species.

The filamentous basidiomycete Ceriporia lacerata, an agent of white rot on wood, has never been reported in human disease and its clinical significance is not yet known. We describe 4 patients with respiratory diseases where C. lacerata was implicated in a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from saprobic colonization to fungal pneumonia. The isolates did not show the morphological characteristics that facilitate recognition of filamentous basidiomycetes, such as the presence of clamp connections, spicules along hyphae, or fruiting bodies. The identity of the mold was confirmed by sequencing the internal transcribed spacer 1 and 4 (ITS-1 and ITS-4) and D1/D2 regions of the rRNA gene. All of the isolates exhibited the lowest MICs of posaconazole and isavuconazole (MIC range, 0.06 to 0.125 μg/ml), followed by itraconazole (MIC range, 0.06 to 0.5 μg/ml), voriconazole (MIC range, 0.125 to 0.5 μg/ml), and amphotericin B (MIC range, 0.25 to 1 μg/ml). The infections reported here occurred in patients with preexisting lung damage induced by tuberculosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chronic, sometimes fatal infections by the ascomycete Aspergillus fumigatus and the basidiomycete Schizophyllum commune are well established in the presence of an anatomical pulmonary defect or in the background of immunodeficiency. It is postulated that C. lacerata, a novel opportunist basidiomycete, may be involved in similar pathological processes.

The Antarctic basidiomycetous yeast Mrakia blollopis SK-4 fermented ethanol between pH 5.0 and pH 10.0 with optimum pH at 8.0-10.0. Knowledge of ethanol fermentability as to the genus Mrakia remains incomplete. Further experiments are required to elucidate the ethanol fermentability of genus e.g., as to optimum fermentation pH, optimum fermentation temperature, and cell viability during fermentation.

We developed an efficient protocol that makes possible the practical use of Agrobacterium to transform the yeast-like conidia of Tremella fuciformis. Mechanical wounding of fungal cells prior to co-cultivation with Agrobacterium cells greatly improved transformation efficiency.

The European species Lactarius subg. Plinthogalus were subjected to a molecular phylogenetic analysis based on ITS, LSU and rpb2 sequences. Morphological characters of the species are discussed in the light of the phylogenetic results. In addition to a broad sampling within Europe, some Asian and North American taxa also were included in the analysis. Eight European species are confirmed molecularly: L. lignyotus, L. acris, L. azonites, L. pterosporus, L. ruginosus, L. romagnesii, L. fuliginosus and L. picinus. Except the sibling species L. fuliginosus and L. picinus, all are morphologically distinct. Our results suggest that L. fuliginosus is associated exclusively with broadleaf trees and L. picinus with conifers, but this putative difference in host specificity needs to be investigated further. Lactarius subruginosus turns out to be a synonym of either L. pterosporus or L. ruginosus. The position of Lactarius terenopus remains to be clarified. The North American taxa that are closely related to the European L. lignyotus (L. fallax, L. lignyotus var. canadensis, var. nigroviolascens, var. marginatus) are not resolved. Intercontinental conspecificity was demonstrated between Europe and northern Asia but was not found between Europe and southern Asia or between Europe and North America. A taxonomic subdivision of L. subg. Plinthogalus based on the height of the spore ornamentation should be rejected.

Differentiation of haustoria on primary infection hyphae of the fungal pathogen Puccinia striiformis was studied in wheat seedlings with two-photon microscopy in combination with a classical staining technique. Our results showed a significant increase in the average haustorium size 22, 44, 68, 92 and 116 h after inoculation (hai). After 116 hai no significant change was observed until 336 hai. Haustorium morphology also changed significantly during the time of infection. Initially small spherical haustoria were seen, but as they grew the haustoria gradually became apically branched. At 22 hai all observed haustoria were spherical, but at 44 hai most haustoria had an irregular structure, and at 92 hai all observed haustoria appeared branched. Along with the changes of the haustorial body the haustorial neck changed from narrow and slender to having an expanded appearance with a rough and invaginated structure. The structural changes were similar in two susceptible wheat varieties, 514W and Cartago, although the mean haustorium size was larger in 514W than in Cartago at all intervals.

Corneroboletus was erected in the Boletaceae to accommodate Boletus indecorus originally described from southeastern Asia. The mucilaginous surface of the basidioma, the ixohyphoepithelium pileipellis and the irregularly warty to irregularly bacillate ornamentation of basidiospores distinguish this fungus from other described species in Boletaceae. Phylogenetic placement of this fungus was investigated further with molecular data including LSU rRNA and concatenated alignment of nrLSU, 5.8S rRNA and rpb2 genes, and an independent lineage among existing genera of Boletaceae was suggested by our phylogenetic results. Consequently a description, illustrations and a comparison of Corneroboletus with allied taxa are presented.

Members of the Cantharellaceae (Cantharellales, Basidiomycota) are common ectomycorrhizal associates of the leguminous genus Dicymbe in the Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana. Eight distinct species or morphospecies currently are recognized in Craterellus Pers. or Cantharellus Adans. ex Fr. from Guyanese Dicymbe-dominated forests. We evaluated the systematics of these taxa with phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequence data from the nuclear ribosomal regions of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and 28S large subunit (LSU). The results of these analyses along with careful assessment of morphology let us described two new species, Craterellus atratoides sp. nov. and Craterellus strigosus sp. nov., redescribe Craterellus atratus (Corner) Yomyart et al. based on new material from Guyana, and propose a new combination in Craterellus for Cantharellus pleurotoides T.W. Henkel, Aime & S.L. Mill. Macroscopic illustrations are provided for two additional cantharelloid morphospecies confirmed in Craterellus, as well as the regionally endemic Cantharellus guyanensis Mont. Macromorphological, micromorphological and habitat data are provided for C. atratoides, C. strigosus and C. atratus, and ITS and LSU sequence data are provided for each of the eight known Guyanese taxa.

Two new species of Hydnum, characterized by slender Hydnum rufescens-like basidiomes and ovoid to broadly ellipsoid basidiospores, are described from the Iberian Peninsula based on morphological and ITS molecular data. Hydnum ovoideisporum is distinguished by pilei with deep orange tones and strong preference for calcareous soil. It is widespread in the Iberian-Mediterranean area. Hydnum vesterholtii is characterized by its ocher to light ocher pileus, and nearly all the collections were made in the Pyrenees. Both ovoid-spored species are monophyletic well supported groups in the maximum parsimony and Bayesian ITS phylogenies, while the remainder of the samples assigned to H. rufescens s.l. and having globose basidiospores split into six well supported clades. The need to typify the name Hydnum rufescens is discussed, and a provisional key is given for the European taxa of Hydnum.

For the first time, the pentalenene synthase (PSS) gene from Streptomyces UC5319 was expressed in Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous, a native producer of astaxanthin. For the expression of the gene and the concurrent knock out of the native crtE or crtYB genes, two new vectors were engineered and used for the transformation of the wild-type strain of X. dendrorhous. The transformations resulted in white colonies, showing a complete shutdown of the carotenoid production. Furthermore, an additional vector was constructed for the insertion of the PSS gene in the rDNA of the yeast. All the mutant strains produce the sesquiterpene pentalenene and show no difference in growth when compared to the wild-type strain. In this report, we demonstrate that X. dendrorhous is a suitable host for the expression of heterologous terpene cyclases and for the production of foreign terpene compounds., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A rust specimen with macroscopic similarities to the cereal stem rusts was collected on Elymus sp. from Gansu province, China. Phylogenetic analyses of ITS and COI DNA sequences indicated the fungus was closely related but distinct as a strongly supported sister taxon to the Puccinia graminis species complex. Microscopic examination revealed diagnostic teliospore characteristics, differentiating it from P. graminis and other morphologically similar rusts. Herein, we designate a name for this new lineage, Puccinia chunjii sp. nov.

Sutorius is described as a new genus of Boletaceae to accommodate Boletus robustus originally named illegitimately by C.C. Frost from eastern North America. The legitimate name, Boletus eximius, provided by C.H. Peck, has been used since for a dark purple to chocolate brown bolete with finely scaly stipe and reddish brown spore deposit. This iconic taxon has been documented on five continents. Despite the straightforward species identification from morphology, the interpretation of stipe macro-morphology and spore color has led to equivocal generic placement. Phylogenetic analyses of genes encoding large subunit rRNA and translation elongation factor 1α confirm Sutorius as a unique generic lineage in the Boletaceae. Two species are recognized based on multiple accessions: S. eximius, represented by collections from North America, Costa Rica, Guyana, Indonesia and Japan (molecular data are lacking for only the Guyanan and Japanese material); and S. australiensis, represented by material from Queensland, Australia. Additional collections from Zambia and Thailand represent independent lineages, but sampling is insufficient to describe new species for these entities.

Mayapple rust is a common, disfiguring disease that is widespread in temperate eastern North America wherever the host, Podophyllum peltatum, occurs. Puccinia podophylli, the etiological agent of this rust, has been shown to be distantly related to both Puccinia and Uromyces as exemplified by their types. A systematic study was made to determine the generic classification of P. podophylli. Phylogenetic analyses of two rDNA loci from multiple specimens support the recognition of this taxon as a separate genus of Pucciniaceae. Based on historical literature and type material, P. podophylli was found to represent the type of the forgotten genus Allodus and it is correctly named Allodus podophylli. A neotype is designated for Puccinia podophylli Schwein. (≡ Allodus podophylli) and a lectotype is designated for Aecidium podophylli.

Dasyspora gregaria, the single species of the allegedly monotypic rust genus Dasyspora (Basidiomycota, Pucciniales), was investigated by light microscopy and DNA sequencing (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region, partial LSU and SSU of the nuclear rDNA, mt cytochrome oxidase subunit 3). Both methods indicated that D. gregaria is not a single species but can be split in 11 distinct taxa, each of which appear confined to a single Xylopia species (Annonaceae) host. Herein nine of these are described as new. Both the phylogenetic analyses and morphology show that the species are grouped into two main clades designated Dasyspora gregaria and D. winteri. The first comprises D. gregaria, the type species of the genus, which is restricted to X. cayennensis, two new species on X. aromatica, D. segregaria from northern South America and D. echinata from Brazil. The second clade is formed by D. winteri, recombined from Puccinia winteri on X. sericea, and the new species D. amazonica on X. amazonica, D. emarginatae on X. emarginata, D. frutescentis on X. frutescens, D. ferrugineae on X. frutescens var. ferruginea, D. guianensis on X. benthamii, D. mesoamericana on X. frutescens, and D. nitidae on X. nitida. Dasyspora frutescentis and D. mesoamericana were not clearly distinguishable by their morphology and host associations but differed from another in their sequences and geographic distributions. They are considered cryptic species. An identification key and the distributions are given for all recognized species. Along with molecular data we discuss the systematic position of Dasyspora in the Pucciniales.

Background: The pathogenesis related protein PR10 (TcPR-10), obtained from the Theobroma cacao-Moniliophthora perniciosa interaction library, presents antifungal activity against M. perniciosa and acts in vitro as a ribonuclease. However, despite its biotechnological potential, the TcPR-10 has the P-loop motif similar to those of some allergenic proteins such as Bet v 1 (Betula verrucosa) and Pru av 1 (Prunus avium). The insertion of mutations in this motif can produce proteins with reduced allergenic power. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the allergenic potential of the wild type and mutant recombinant TcPR-10 using bioinformatics tools and immunological assays., Methodology/principal Findings: Mutant substitutions (T10P, I30V, H45S) were inserted in the TcPR-10 gene by site-directed mutagenesis, cloned into pET28a and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) cells. Changes in molecular surface caused by the mutant substitutions was evaluated by comparative protein modeling using the three-dimensional structure of the major cherry allergen, Pru av 1 as a template. The immunological assays were carried out in 8-12 week old female BALB/c mice. The mice were sensitized with the proteins (wild type and mutants) via subcutaneous and challenged intranasal for induction of allergic airway inflammation., Conclusions/significance: We showed that the wild TcPR-10 protein has allergenic potential, whereas the insertion of mutations produced proteins with reduced capacity of IgE production and cellular infiltration in the lungs. On the other hand, in vitro assays show that the TcPR-10 mutants still present antifungal and ribonuclease activity against M. perniciosa RNA. In conclusion, the mutant proteins present less allergenic potential than the wild TcPR-10, without the loss of interesting biotechnological properties.

• We investigated the fungal symbionts and carbon nutrition of a Japanese forest photosynthetic orchid, Platanthera minor, whose ecology suggests a mixotrophic syndrome, that is, a mycorrhizal association with ectomycorrhiza (ECM)-forming fungi and partial exploitation of fungal carbon. • We performed molecular identification of symbionts by PCR amplifications of the fungal ribosomal DNA on hyphal coils extracted from P. minor roots. We tested for a (13)C and (15)N enrichment characteristic of mixotrophic plants. We also tested the ectomycorrhizal abilities of orchid symbionts using a new protocol of direct inoculation of hyphal coils onto roots of Pinus densiflora seedlings. • In phylogenetic analyses, most isolated fungi were close to ECM-forming Ceratobasidiaceae clades previously detected from a few fully heterotrophic orchids or environmental ectomycorrhiza surveys. The direct inoculation of fungal coils of these fungi resulted in ectomycorrhiza formation on P. densiflora seedlings. Stable isotope analyses indicated mixotrophic nutrition of P. minor, with fungal carbon contributing from 50% to 65%. • This is the first evidence of photosynthetic orchids associated with ectomycorrhizal Ceratobasidiaceae taxa, confirming the evolution of mixotrophy in the Orchideae orchid tribe, and of ectomycorrhizal abilities in the Ceratobasidiaceae. Our new ectomycorrhiza formation technique may enhance the study of unculturable orchid mycorrhizal fungi., (© 2011 The Authors. New Phytologist © 2011 New Phytologist Trust.)

Frommeëlla (Phragmidiaceae, Pucciniales, Basidiomycota), which currently includes two species and is typified by F. tormentillae, causes rust on members of tribe Potentilleae (Rosaceae). The genus has been distinguished from Phragmidium on the basis of having only one germ pore per teliospore cell rather than two or three and by aecial characters. Phylogenetic analyses of both currently accepted Frommeëlla spp. with nLSU rDNA data suggest that Frommeëlla was derived from within a clade representing Phragmidium. Thus Frommeëlla should be considered to be a later generic synonym of Phragmidium. Analyses also indicate that Frommeëlla tormentillae on Potentilla species includes two taxa recognized herein as Phragmidium potentillae-canadensis and P. tormentillae. Frommeëlla mexicana on Potentilla spp. formerly classified in Duchesnea, is distinct from but sister to the other two species. Based on data regarding type specimens that were presented in a study by McCain and Hennen, the new combination Phragmidium mexicanum is proposed as the correct name for this species. Necessary studies of original material were made, and Phragmidium potentillae-canadensis is lectotpyified and epitypified. Although considered and expanded here, further examination of species boundaries and host ranges of the fungi formerly classified in Frommeëlla is warranted.

Based on multiple gene analyses (nuclear large subunit, nuclear small subunit, internal transcribed spacer region including the 5.8 s subunit rDNA, and translation elongation factor 1α) and septal pore ultrastructure we describe a new lineage of Pucciniomycotina consisting of a new class, Tritirachiomycetes, new order, Tritirachiales, and new family, Tritirachiaceae. Tritirachium dependens, T. oryzae, T. roseum (reintroduced), T. cinnamomeum and two unidentified species are recognized. Phylogenetic analyses do not support existing morphological circumscription of some species, and the available evidence suggests that morphological evaluation alone is not adequate for species identification.

Decomposer fungi are primary decomposing agents in terrestrial soils. Their mycelial networks play an important role in nutrient mineralisation and distribution, but are also nutritious resources for various soil invertebrates. Global climate change is predicted to alter the diversity and community composition of these soil fauna. To understand whether changes in invertebrate species diversity are likely to affect fungal-mediated decomposition, this study compared the grazing potentials of different invertebrate taxa and functional groups. Specifically, the grazing impacts of seven invertebrate taxa on the growth and spatial distribution of six basidiomycete fungi growing from beech wood blocks in soil microcosms were explored. Wood decay rates by fungi were also compared. The consequences of grazing were both taxon- and species-specific. Generally, macro-invertebrates caused the greatest damage, while meso- and micro-invertebrates often stimulated mycelial growth. Invertebrate size, preferences and population dynamics are likely to influence grazing potentials. Effects of grazing varied between fungi, with mycelial morphology and biochemistry possibly influencing susceptibility. Heavy grazing indirectly increased fungal-mediated wood decomposition. Changes in invertebrate community composition are predicted to have consequences for fungal growth, activity and community structure in woodland soils. Abiotic climate change factors including CO(2) and temperature affect mycelial productivity directly, but the indirect effects, mediated through changes in the soil invertebrate community, may be equally important in controlling ecosystem functioning.

A gasteroid bolete collected recently in Sarawak on the island of Borneo is described as the new species Spongiforma squarepantsii. A comprehensive description, illustrations, phylogenetic placement and a comparison with a closely allied species are provided.