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Magnetometers based on the extraordinary magnetoresistance (EMR) effect are promising for applications which demand high sensitivity combined with room temperature operation but their application for magnetic field sensing requires further optimization. A key challenge is to obtain Ohmic metal/semiconductor contacts with low contact resistances in EMR devices comprising semiconductors with low carrier densities and high electron mobilities, yet, this topic remains scarcely investigated experimentally. By annealing high-mobility InSb in argon with systematically increasing temperatures, we experimentally demonstrate how the contact resistance to InSb films can be improved by two orders of magnitude by annealing to the micro-Ohm cm2 range without degrading the high mobility. We further show that lowering the contact resistance monotonously increases the room temperature magnetoresistance at 2 T from 700% to 65,000%. Lastly, we explore the origin of intrinsic magnetoresistance in high-mobility InSb thin films and suggest that it can best be explained by multiple band conduction., Comment: 13 pages + 2 pages of supplemental information. 5 Figues + 3 supplemental figures

Introduced in 1962, the Langlie procedure is one of the most popular approaches to sensitivity testing. It aims to estimate an unknown sensitivity distribution based on the outcomes of binary trials. Officially recognized by the U.S. Department of Defense, the procedure is widely used both in civil and military industry. It first provides an experimental design for how the binary trials should be conducted, and then estimates the sensitivity distribution via maximum likelihood under a simple parametric model like logistic or probit regression. Despite its popularity and longevity, little is known about the statistical properties of the Langlie procedure, but it is well-established that the sequence of inputs tend to narrow in on the median of the sensitivity distribution. For this reason, the U.S. Department of Defense's protocol dictates that the procedure is only appropriate for estimating the median of the distribution, and no other quantiles. This begs the question of whether the parametric model assumption can be disposed of altogether, potentially making the Langlie procedure entirely nonparametric, much like the Robbins-Monro procedure. In this paper we answer this question in the negative by proving that when the Langlie procedure is employed, the sequence of inputs converges with probability zero.

There exist multiple regression applications in engineering, industry and medicine where the outcomes follow an adaptive experimental design in which the next measurement depends on the previous observations, so that the observations are not conditionally independent given the covariates. In the existing literature on such adaptive designs, results asserting asymptotic normality of the maximum likelihood estimator require regularity conditions involving the second or third derivatives of the log-likelihood. Here we instead extend the theory of differentiability in quadratic mean (DQM) to the setting of adaptive designs, which requires strictly fewer regularity assumptions than the classical theory. In doing so, we discover a new DQM assumption, which we call summable differentiability in quadratic mean (S-DQM). As applications, we first verify asymptotic normality for a classical adaptive designs, namely the Bruceton design, before moving on to a complicated problem, namely a Markovian version of the Langlie design.

In Bayesian statistics, the marginal likelihood (ML) is the key ingredient needed for model comparison and model averaging. Unfortunately, estimating MLs accurately is notoriously difficult, especially for models where posterior simulation is not possible. Recently, Christensen (2023) introduced the concept of permutation counting, which can accurately estimate MLs of models for exchangeable binary responses. Such data arise in a multitude of statistical problems, including binary classification, bioassay and sensitivity testing. Permutation counting is entirely likelihood-free and works for any model from which a random sample can be generated, including nonparametric models. Here we present perms, a package implementing permutation counting. As a result of extensive optimisation efforts, perms is computationally efficient and able to handle large data problems. It is available as both an R package and a Python library. A broad gallery of examples illustrating its usage is provided, which includes both standard parametric binary classification and novel applications of nonparametric models, such as changepoint analysis. We also cover the details of the implementation of perms and illustrate its computational speed via a simple simulation study.

Extraordinary magnetoresistance (EMR) is a geometric magnetoresistance effect occurring in hybrid devices consisting of a high-mobility material joined by a metal. The change in resistance can exceed 107% at room temperature when a magnetic field of 5 T is applied. Magnetic field sensors based on EMR hold the potential formeasuring weak magnetic fields with an unprecedented sensitivity, yet, to date this potential is largely unmet. In this work, we provide an extensive review of the current state-of-the-art in EMR sensors with a focus on the hybrid device geometries, the constituent material properties and applications of EMR. We present a direct comparison of the best devices in literature across magnetoresistance, sensitivity and noise equivalent field for different materials and geometric designs. The compilation of studies collected in this review illustrates the extremely rich possibilities for tuning the magnetoresistive behavior varying the device geometry and material properties. In addition, we aim to improve the understanding of the EMR effect and its interplay with geometry and material properties. Finally, we discuss recent trends in the field and future perspectives for EMR.

Developing reliable methods for modulating the electronic structure of the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in SrTiO3 is crucial for utilizing its full potential and inducing novel properties. Here, we show that relatively simple surface preparation reconstructs the 2DEG of SrTiO3 (STO) surface, leading to a Lifshitz-like transition. Combining experimental methods, such as angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) with ab initio calculations, we find that the modulation of the surface band structures is primarily attributed to the reorganization of the chemical composition. In addition, ARPES experiments demonstrate that vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) light can be efficiently employed to alter the band renormalization of the 2DEG system and control the electron-phonon interaction (EPI). Our study provides a robust and straightforward route to stabilize and tune the low-dimensional electronic structure via the chemical degeneracy of the STO surface.

The two-dimensional electron system found between LaAlO3 and SrTiO3 hosts a variety of physical phenomena that can be tuned through external stimuli. This allows for electronic devices controlling magnetism, spin-orbit coupling, and superconductivity. Controlling the electron density by varying donor concentrations and using electrostatic gating are convenient handles to modify the electronic properties, but the impact on the microscopic scale, particularly of the former, remains underexplored. Here, we image the current distribution at 4.2 K in amorphous-LaAlO3/SrTiO3 using scanning superconducting-quantum-interference-device microscopy while changing the carrier density in situ using electrostatic gating and oxygen annealing. We show how potential disorder affects the current and how homogeneous 2D flow evolves into several parallel conducting channels when approaching the metal-to-insulator transition. We link this to ferroelastic domains and oxygen vacancies. This has important consequences for micro- and nanoscale devices with low carrier density and fundamental studies on quantum effects in oxides.

Modern computation based on the von Neumann architecture is today a mature cutting-edge science. In the Von Neumann architecture, processing and memory units are implemented as separate blocks interchanging data intensively and continuously. This data transfer is responsible for a large part of the power consumption. The next generation computer technology is expected to solve problems at the exascale with 1018 calculations each second. Even though these future computers will be incredibly powerful, if they are based on von Neumann type architectures, they will consume between 20 and 30 megawatts of power and will not have intrinsic physically built-in capabilities to learn or deal with complex data as our brain does. These needs can be addressed by neuromorphic computing systems which are inspired by the biological concepts of the human brain. This new generation of computers has the potential to be used for the storage and processing of large amounts of digital information with much lower power consumption than conventional processors. Among their potential future applications, an important niche is moving the control from data centers to edge devices. The aim of this Roadmap is to present a snapshot of the present state of neuromorphic technology and provide an opinion on the challenges and opportunities that the future holds in the major areas of neuromorphic technology, namely materials, devices, neuromorphic circuits, neuromorphic algorithms, applications, and ethics. The Roadmap is a collection of perspectives where leading researchers in the neuromorphic community provide their own view about the current state and the future challenges. We hope that this Roadmap will be a useful resource to readers outside this field, for those who are just entering the field, and for those who are well established in the neuromorphic community. https://doi.org/10.1088/2634-4386/ac4a83

Rich functionalities of transition-metal oxides and their interfaces bear an enormous technological potential. Its realization in practical devices requires, however, a significant improvement of yet relatively low electron mobility in oxide materials. Recently, a mobility boost of about two orders of magnitude has been demonstrated at the spinel/perovskite {\gamma}-Al2O3/SrTiO3 interface compared to the paradigm perovskite/perovskite LaAlO3/SrTiO3. We explore the fundamental physics behind this phenomenon from direct measurements of the momentum-resolved electronic structure of this interface using resonant soft-X-ray angle-resolved photoemission. We find an anomaly in orbital ordering of the mobile electrons in {\gamma}-Al2O3/SrTiO3 which depopulates electron states in the top STO layer. This rearrangement of the mobile electron system pushes the electron density away from the interface that reduces its overlap with the interfacial defects and weakens the electron-phonon interaction, both effects contributing to the mobility boost. A crystal-field analysis shows that the band order alters owing to the symmetry breaking between the spinel {\gamma}-Al2O3 and perovskite SrTiO3. The band-order engineering exploiting the fundamental symmetry properties emerges as another route to boost the performance of oxide devices.

Oxide heterostructures represent a unique playground for triggering the emergence of novel electronic states and for implementing new device concepts. The discovery of 2D conductivity at the $LaAlO_3/SrTiO_3$ interface has been linking for over a decade two of the major current research fields in Materials Science: correlated transition-metal-oxide systems and low-dimensional systems. A full merging of these two fields requires nevertheless the realization of $LaAlO_3/SrTiO_3$ heterostructures in the form of freestanding membranes. Here we show a completely new method for obtaining oxide hetero-membranes with micrometer lateral dimensions. Unlike traditional thin-film-based techniques developed for semiconductors and recently extended to oxides, the concept we demonstrate does not rely on any sacrificial layer and is based instead on pure strain engineering. We monitor through both real-time and post-deposition analyses, performed at different stages of growth, the strain relaxation mechanism leading to the spontaneous formation of curved hetero-membranes. Detailed transmission electron microscopy investigations show that the membranes are fully epitaxial and that their curvature results in a huge strain gradient, each of the layers showing a mixed compressive/tensile strain state. Electronic devices are fabricated by realizing ad hoc circuits for individual micro-membranes transferred on silicon chips. Our samples exhibit metallic conductivity and electrostatic field effect similar to 2D-electron systems in bulk heterostructures. Our results open a new path for adding oxide functionality into semiconductor electronics, potentially allowing for ultra-low voltage gating of a superconducting transistors, micromechanical control of the 2D electron gas mediated by ferroelectricity and flexoelectricity, and on-chip straintronics., Comment: 8 pages, 4 figures

Diluted oxide interface of LaAl1-xMnxO/SrTiO3 (LAMO/STO) provides a new way of tuning the ground states of the interface between the two band insulators of LAO and STO from metallic/superconducting to highly insulating. Increasing the Mn doping level (x) leads to a delicate control of the carrier density as well as a raise in the electron mobility and spin polarization. Herein, we demonstrate a tunable Rashba spin-orbit coupling (SOC) and spin polarization of LAMO/STO (0.2 <= x <= 0.3) by applying a back gate. The presence of SOC causes the splitting of energy band into two branches by a spin splitting energy. The maximum spin splitting energy depends on the Mn doping and decreases with the increasing Mn content and then vanishes at x = 0.3. The carrier density dependence of the spin splitting energy for different compositions shows a dome-shaped behavior with a maximum at different normalized carrier density. These findings have not yet been observed in LAO/STO interfaces. A fully back-gate-tunable spin-polarized 2DEL is observed at the interface with x = 0.3 where only dxy orbits are populated (5.3E12 cm-2 <= ns <= 1.0E13 cm-2). The present results shed light on unexplored territory in SOC at STO-base oxide heterostructures and make LAMO/STO an intriguing platform for spin-related phenomena in 3d-electron systems., Comment: 5 figures, to be published in PRB

Heterostructures and crystal interfaces play a major role in state-of-the-art semiconductor devices and play a central role in the field of oxide electronics. In oxides the link between the microscopic properties of the interfaces and bulk properties of the resulting heterostructures challenge our fundamental understanding. Insights on the early growth stage of interfaces and its influence on resulting physical properties are scarce -- typically the information is inferred from post growth characterization. Here, we report on real time measurements of the transport properties of SrTiO3-based heterostructures while the crystal heterostructure is forming. Surprisingly, we detect a conducting interface already at the initial growth stage, much earlier than the well-established critical thickness limit for observing conductivity ex-situ after sample growth. We investigate how the conductivity depends on various physical processes occurring during pulsed laser depositions, including light illumination, particle bombardment by the plasma plume, interactions with the atmosphere and oxygen migration from SrTiO3 to the thin films of varying compositions. Using this approach, we propose a new design tool to control the electrical properties of interfaces in real time during their formation.

The metallic interface between two oxide insulators, such as LaAlO3/SrTiO3 (LAO/STO), provides new opportunities for electronics and spintronics. However, due to the presence of multiple orbital populations, tailoring the interfacial properties such as the ground state and metal-insulator transitions remains challenging. Here, we report an unforeseen tunability of the phase diagram of LAO/STO by alloying LAO with a ferromagnetic LaMnO3 insulator without forming lattice disorder and at the same time without changing the polarity of the system. By increasing the Mn-doping level, x, of LaAl1-xMnxO3/STO, the interface undergoes a Lifshitz transition at x = 0.225 across a critical carrier density of nc= 2.8E13 cm-2, where a peak TSC =255 mK of superconducting transition temperature is observed. Moreover, the LaAl1-xMnxO3 turns ferromagnetic at x >=0.25. Remarkably, at x = 0.3, where the metallic interface is populated by only dxy electrons and just before it becomes insulating, we achieve reproducibly a same device with both signatures of superconductivity and clear anomalous Hall effect. This provides a unique and effective way to tailor oxide interfaces for designing on-demand electronic and spintronic devices., Comment: 18 pages and 6 figures

The two-dimensional metal forming at the interface between an oxide insulator and SrTiO3 provides new opportunities for oxide electronics. However, the quantum Hall effect, one of the most fascinating effects of electrons confined in two dimensions, remains underexplored at these complex oxide heterointerfaces. Here, we report the experimental observation of quantized Hall resistance in a SrTiO3 heterointerface based on the modulation-doped amorphous-LaAlO$_{3}$/SrTiO$_{3}$ heterostructure, which exhibits both high electron mobility exceeding 10000 cm$^{2}$/Vs and low carrier density on the order of ~10$^{12}$ cm$^{-2}$. Along with unambiguous Shubnikov-de Haas oscillations, the spacing of the quantized Hall resistance suggests that the interface is comprised of a single quantum well with ten parallel conducting two-dimensional subbands. This provides new insight into the electronic structure of conducting oxide interfaces and represents an important step towards designing and understanding advanced oxide devices.

Oxide interfaces provide an opportunity for electronics. However, patterning of electron gases at complex oxide interfaces is challenging. In particular, patterning of complex oxides while preserving a high electron mobility remains underexplored and inhibits the study of quantum mechanical effects where extended electron mean free paths are paramount. This letter presents an effective patterning strategy of both the amorphous-LaAlO$_3$/SrTiO$_3$ (a-LAO/STO) and modulation-doped amorphous- LaAlO$_3$/La$_{7/8}$Sr$_{1/8}$MnO$_3$/SrTiO$_3$ (a-LAO/LSM/STO) oxide interfaces. Our patterning is based on selective wet etching of amorphous-LSM (a-LSM) thin films which acts as a hard mask during subsequent depositions. Strikingly, the patterned modulation-doped interface shows electron mobilities up to ~8,700 cm$^2$/Vs at 2 K, which is among the highest reported values for patterned conducting complex oxide interfaces that usually are ~1,000 cm$^2$/Vs at 2 K.

With infrared ellipsometry we studied the response of the confined electrons in a $\gamma$-Al$_2$O$_3$/SrTiO$_3$ heterostructures in which they originate predominantly from oxygen vacancies. From the analysis of a so-called Berreman mode, that develops near the highest longitudinal optical phonon mode of SrTiO$_3$, we derive the sheet carrier density, ${N_{s}}$, the mobility, $\mu$, and also the depth profile of the carrier concentration. Notably, we find that ${N_{s}}$ and the shape of the depth profile are similar as in LaAlO$_3$/SrTiO$_3$ heterostructures for which the itinerant carriers are believed to arise from a polar discontinuity. The main differences concern the higher mobility and a relatively stronger confinement of the electrons in $\gamma$-Al$_2$O$_3$/SrTiO$_3$, Comment: 12 pages, 2 figures

The two-dimensional electron gas at the crystalline LaAlO$_{3}$/SrTiO$_{3}$ (c-LAO/STO) interface has sparked large interest due to its exotic properties including an intriguing gate-tunable superconducting phase. While there is growing evidence of pronounced spatial inhomogeneity in the conductivity at STO-based interfaces, the consequences for superconductivity remain largely unknown. We study interfaces based on amorphous LAO top layers grown at room temperature (a-LAO/STO) and demonstrate a superconducting phase similar to c-LAO/STO, however, with a gate-tunable critical temperature of $460 \, \mathrm{mK}$, higher than any previously reported values for c-LAO/STO. The dependence of the superconducting critical current on temperature, magnetic field and backgate-controlled doping is found to be consistently described by a model of a random array of Josephson-coupled superconducting domains., Comment: 6 pages, 5 figures

The discovery of two-dimensional electron gases (2DEGs) in SrTiO3-based heterostructures provides new opportunities for nanoelectronics. Herein, we create a new type of oxide 2DEG by the epitaxial-strain-induced polarization at an otherwise nonpolar perovskite-type interface of CaZrO3/SrTiO3. Remarkably, this heterointerface is atomically sharp, and exhibits a high electron mobility exceeding 60,000 cm2V-1s-1 at low temperatures. The 2DEG carrier density exhibits a critical dependence on the film thickness, in good agreement with the polarization induced 2DEG scheme., Comment: 19 pages, 4 figs; Nano Letters,2015, published online