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Landforms and sediments on the palaeo–ice stream beds of central Alberta record glacitectonic raft production and subsequent progressive disaggregation and moulding, associated substrate ploughing, and grooving. We identify a subglacial temporal or developmental hierarchy that begins with incipient rafts, including en échelon hill-hole complexes, hill-hole pairs, and strike-slip raft complexes, all of which display patterns typical of transcurrent fault activation and pull apart. Many display jigsaw puzzle–style fragmentation, indicative of substrate displacement along shallow décollement zones and potentially related to patchy ice stream freeze-on. Their gradual fragmentation and smoothing produces ice flow-transverse ridges (ribbed moraine), hill-groove pairs, and paraxial ridge and groove associations. Initiator scarp and megafluting associations are indicative of raft dislodgement and groove ploughing, leading to the formation of murdlins, crag-and-tails, stoss-and-lee type flutings and drumlins, and Type 1 hogsback flutings. Downflow modification of rafts creates linear block trains (rubble stripes), stoss-and-lee type megaflutings, horned crag-and-tails, rubble drumlinoids, and murdlins, diagnostic of an immature palaeo–ice stream footprint. Lateral ice stream margin migration ingests disaggregated thrust masses to form ridged spindles, ladder-type morphologies, and narrow zones of ribbed terrain and Type 2 hogsback flutings, an assemblage diagnostic of ice stream shear margin moraine formation.

Rock shear fracturing occurs frequently in engineering sites, such as underground tunnels and rock slopes. One main factor is that the multiple presence of crack is complicated, especially in terms of crack status. This study aims to investigate the crack status from both crack existence and development. Rock fracturing is carried out by shear loading. Acoustic emission (AE) monitoring system and CCD camera are used to catch the characteristics of crack evolution. Results demonstrate that crack status is influenced by rock physical properties and its stress boundary, there exists a positive correlation between normal force and crack geometry (such as the angle of en echelon crack). Crack existence follows a distribution of “the whole size of en echelon crack and the local region of pinnate crack” in terms of spatial-temporal aspects. Crack development manifests the characteristics of “Inheritance and Variability”.

Strike-slip deformation belts are interesting structures in the crust and are of significance in petroleum exploration. The Shunbei 5 fault belt (SB5), a long strike-slip deformation belt in the Tarim Basin, played an important role in the formation of a recently discovered major oilfield known as the Shunbei oilfield. In this study, models of plan view and vertical profile were established to interpret SB5 with multi-cycled tectonic activities. To this end, its structural framework, tectonic evolution, and associated plate tectonics were investigated using 2D and 3D seismic data. SB5 was formed as a dextral simple shear belt at the end of the Middle Ordovician. In the plan view, R-shears and P-shears with local transpressional and transtensional structures were observed. Along the vertical profiles, various structural styles occurred at various depths and strata in response to various stratigraphy mechanisms. Although these structures show clear boundaries between them, they correspond to the same formation time, indicating that they underwent deformation simultaneously. The second activity of SB5 occurred at the end of the late Ordovician, during which it was a dextral transtensional strike-slip deformation belt consisting of left-stepping en echelon R-shears. The R-shears were transtensional during the progressive deformation. Subsequently, SB5 underwent several strike slips of weak strength. Notably, SB5 cut through a deep Middle Cambrian gypsum salt layer and connected the deep Lower Cambrian source rock with deep Lower and Middle Ordovician carbonates to form the oil and gas reservoirs. The established models are of reference value in the interpretation of other subsurface strike-slip deformation belts.

En echelon fractures and veins are among the most common and distinctive geological structures, yet their three-dimensional forms and relationships to surrounding structures are commonly unclear. X-ray computed tomography (CT) offers an unrivaled ability to examine structures within rocks in three dimensions, and it is applied here to a sample of drill core from the Marcellus Shale of southwestern Pennsylvania (USA). CT images yield qualitative and quantitative data on the transition from a pyrite-rich planar vein to an en echelon veinlet array, and on the heterogeneity of veinlets within the array. Using a combination of three- and two-dimensional images, geometric data, and traditional petrography, we identify a range of veinlet shapes consistent with deformation during formation of an antitaxial graphite-calcite-pyrite vein system. Each of the veinlets is rooted in the underlying planar vein where it is narrowest. The transition from planar vein to en echelon array coincides with a change in bedding, suggesting that competency contrasts between adjacent beds controlled the fracture morphology. Veinlets initiated as short, lenticular fractures at ∼45° to the planar vein before lengthening, dilating, and rotating. None of the veinlets are strongly sigmoidal, nor is there measurable offset across the margins of the planar vein; therefore, finite non-shear strain was very limited, and fluid overpressure–induced fracturing during burial and diagenesis is probably the most likely process for fracturing and vein formation.

The formation conditions and time sequences for various types of wrench-related fractures are not clear. Based on a parabola-type failure criterion, this paper has gotten new insights on those questions. In a simple shear, the occurrence of either tensional fractures or Riedel shears is controlled by the ratio (Rtc) of tensile strength to cohesion. In a pure shear, the occurrence of either second order tensional fractures or second order Riedel shears is controlled by the ratio (Rtci) of tensile strength to cohesion, given a constant inner frictional coefficient. Where the Rtc or the Rtci is less than a certain value, the en echelon tensional fractures will occur first. Where the Rtc or the Rtci is bigger than the certain value, the Riedel shears will occur first. Where the Rtc or the Rtci is equal to the certain value, the en echelon tensional fractures and the Riedel shears will occur simultaneously. The understandings will enhance the research on wrench related fractures and will be of significance in petroleum exploration and development, because fractures are both important accumulation spaces and key migration paths for oil and gas.

The Pillara Zn-Pb deposit is located on the northeast margin of the Canning Basin, Western Australia where it is hosted by a series north-northeast-trending, en echelon, conjugate normal faults tha...

For studying rock avalanches, complex surficial and internal characteristics have been regarded as important indicators for understanding avalanche transport mechanism. In the present study, deposits of a massive Holocene rock avalanche, termed the Nyixoi Chongco rock avalanche, located on the Lhasa Terrane of Tibetan Plateau in China are investigated, based on a combination of remote sensing data and in-situ observations. It is revealed that abundant surface landforms, including Toreva blocks, longitudinal and transverse ridges, en echelon ridges, and hummocks, are commonly developed. Corresponding to these surface morphologies, a series of internal sedimentary structures, including jigsaw structures, inner shear zones, aligned clasts, diapiric structures, convoluted laminations, and basal decollements, are also well developed. Through an analysis of these surficial and internal characteristics, we propose that a rapid motion, similar to a laminar flow, most likely occurred after the avalanche mass detaching from the source area. In this process, the detached avalanche mass was mainly emplaced by a frictional, simple shear process characterized by a bulldozing effect that occurred between the sliding mass and the substrate. From the proximal to the distal sections of the avalanche, the transport of the rock mass can be classified into four major processes: an extension-dominated sliding process in the transition zone, a compression-dominated sliding process in subzones III-1 and III-2 of the accumulation zone (III), a sliding process co-dominated by compression and lateral spreading in subzone III-3, and a rapid radial spreading process in subzone III-4. The results of our study provided an improved understanding of the transport mechanisms of this rock avalanche.

Topographic divides along the northeastern marginal zone of the Tibetan Plateau separate tributary drainage systems that flow into the Yellow River. Field investigations and topographic analysis indicate that: i) Late Quaternary–Holocene sedimentary sequences are deformed into a series of left-stepping WNW–ESE-trending en echelon flexural folds; ii) the folds form topographic divides that separate drainage systems that flow into the Yellow River; and iii) the regional axis of maximum compressive stress, as inferred from flexural folds and active fault-related structures, trends ENE–WSW, consistent with geophysical and seismic data. These results demonstrate that the topographic divides formed through active flexural folding and faulting in the northeastern marginal zone of the Tibetan Plateau, corresponding to the ongoing northeastward shortening of the plateau accommodating the Eurasia-India continental collision.

The Itabira Iron District, located at the northeastern end of the Iron Quadrangle, still presents some uncertainties regarding the tectonic origin of its macrostructure. The Itabira synclinorium is characterized by a large synformal structure in the NE-SW direction, with anticlines and synclines distributed "en echelon". The analysis of the relationship between the primary structures and the plane-axial schistosity, linear and planar structures, allowed the development of a three-dimensional model for the region. The increase in deformation from E to W, observed from the Cauê mine to the Conceição mine, and the rotation of the axes of the macrostructural folds, characterized by the Cauê, Dois Córregos, and Conceição synclines, are explained in this study by a model with six deformation phases. The increase in shortening from the Cauê mine towards the Conceição mine can be explained based on the flanking fold model. The application of this mechanism to explain kilometric-scale folding has been presented for the eastern flank of the Santa Rita Syncline in the Iron Quadrangle.

Following observations of mobilized boulder trail populations from Cerberus Fossae, Mars, that have been interpreted as possible evidence of large magnitude marsquakes rupturing for distances of ~207 km along exposed active faults, additional boulder trail populations were measured along shorter faults within the region of Grjota Valles (50-150 km length) to test the hypotheses that (1) these faults are also candidate locations for marsquakes, and (2) that marsquake magnitude might be smaller, limited by fault dimensions available for rupture. For a region containing two en echelon graben, boulder trail data define two anomalies with maxima in (a) boulder trails per kilometer, and (b) maximum width of boulder trails, one that is ~116 km in length along strike and the other ~70 km in length along strike. Values for the maxima are 45 trails per km and 5 m mean trail width for the 70 km long anomaly, and 115 trails per km with 5.3 m mean trail width for the 116 km long anomaly, above background values measured elsewhere along these faults of zero trails per kilometer with zero boulder trail widths. If combined with published data from Cerberus Fossae with a ~207 km long anomaly in boulder trails per km (125 trails per km maxima) and maximum mean boulder trail width (8.5 m maximum trail width), the 3 datasets suggest correlations between the (a) along-strike length of boulder trail anomalies, (b) boulder trails per km and (c) maximum boulder trail width. If interpreted as due to single marsquakes, and if the dimensions of these anomalies are a proxy for rupture length, when combined, one interpretation of this is that boulders have been mobilized by marsquakes and that the marsquake magnitude is proportional to the along strike length of the anomalies. In other words, the data suggest that marsquake magnitude, if that is the cause of the anomalies, is limited by fault length as expected for terrestrial seismically active faults. Such findings suggest that the Martian surface may have been shaken, in the very recent past, by large magnitude marsquakes. We discuss this in terms of the seismicity of Mars.

The Apenninic chain, in central Italy, has been recently struck by the Norcia 2016 seismic sequence. Three mainshocks, in 2016, occurred on August 24 (MW6.0), October 26 (MW5.9) and October 30 (MW6.5) along well-known late Quaternary active WSW-dipping normal faults. Coseismic fractures and hypocentral seismicity distribution are mostly associated with failure along the Mt Vettore-Mt Bove (VBF) fault. Nevertheless, following the October 26 shock, the aftershock spatial distribution suggests the activation of a source not previously mapped beyond the northern tip of the VBF system. In this area, a remarkable seismicity rate was observed also during 2017 and 2018, the most energetic event being the April 10, 2018 (MW4.6) normal fault earthquake. In this paper, we advance the hypothesis that the Norcia seismic sequence activated a previously unknown seismogenic source. We constrain its geometry and seismogenic behavior by exploiting: 1) morphometric analysis of high-resolution topographic data; 2) field geologic- and morphotectonic evidence within the context of long-term deformation constraints; 3) 3D seismological validation of fault activity, and 4) Coulomb stress transfer modeling. Our results support the existence of distributed and subtle deformation along normal fault segments related to an immature structure, the Pievebovigliana fault (PBF). The fault strikes in NNW-SSE direction, dips to SW and is in right-lateral en echelon setting with the VBF system. Its activation has been highlighted by most of the seismicity observed in the sector. The geometry and location are compatible with volumes of enhanced stress identified by Coulomb stress-transfer computations. Its reconstructed length (at least 13 km) is compatible with the occurrence of MW≥6.0 earthquakes in a sector heretofore characterized by low seismic activity. The evidence for PBF is a new observation associated with the Norcia 2016 seismic sequence and is consistent with the overall tectonic setting of the area. Its existence implies a northward extent of the intra-Apennine extensional domain and should be considered to address seismic hazard assessments in central Italy.

The Little Minch Sill Complex consists of a series of stacked, multi-leaved Paleocene dolerite sills, which have primarily intruded into Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and Paleocene tuffs/?hyaloclastites within the Sea of Hebrides Basin. The Sea of Hebrides Basin is situated to the west of the Scottish mainland on the NE Atlantic margin. Two previously proposed models for the emplacement of the sill complex have opposing ideas for the location of magma input and the emplacement mechanisms. Both models have been constructed using data primarily from onshore outcrops on the Isle of Skye, Raasay and the Shiant Isles. However, these onshore outcrops only represent a quarter (1040 km2) of the entire extent of the sill complex, which is largely located offshore. To understand how the sill complex as a whole was emplaced within the basin, both onshore and offshore magma transport needs to be considered. Using high-resolution multibeam bathymetry data (up to 2 m resolution) obtained between 2008 and 2011, along with supporting seismic reflection, sparker and pinger data, a new assessment of the offshore extent and character of the sill complex has been constructed. Mapping of the large-scale relationships between intrusions and the host rock, along with morphological features such as magma lobes, magma fingers, transgressive wings, en echelon feeder dykes and the axis of saucer-/half-saucer-shaped intrusions, has indicated the magma flow directions within the intrusive network. Assessing the flow kinematics of the sills has provided insights into magma transport and emplacement processes offshore. Combining data from previously mapped onshore sills with data from our newly constructed model for magma emplacement offshore has allowed us to construct a new model for the emplacement of the Little Minch Sill Complex. This model demonstrates that major basin-bounding faults may have a lesser role in channelling magma through sedimentary basins than previously thought. Applying the knowledge obtained from this study could further progress our understanding of the effect of sill emplacement on fluid flow within volcanic rift basins worldwide, with direct impacts on the exploitation of petroleum and geothermal systems.

Documenting neotectonic instabilities and determining the style and time of deformation in the vast and difficult to access central Amazonia region is challenging. We focus on these issues by investigating a large area of the Negro River drainage basin, applying morphostructural analysis based on synthetic aperture radar data. The digital elevation models of the C-band Shuttle Radar Topography Mission and the L-band Protection System of Amazonia were used as the database. We also used subsurface magnetic information from the Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid global model to validate the morphostructures. The results revealed NW-oriented morphostructural lineaments bounding multiple depositional valley fills. These were extensively fragmented to form regularly distributed en échelon rectangular blocks commonly offset horizontally by several kilometers. Strike-slip faults and oblique, either normal or reverse, faults are present. These structures were reactivated along the main NE- and SW-oriented regional structural trends due to N-S-oriented horizontal compression and E-W-oriented horizontal extension in the late Pleistocene and Holocene. The extensive neotectonic faulting results from the interplay of plate motion and Andean uplifting since the late Pleistocene, combined with local stresses.

Producing a sufficient volume of multiscale crack networks is key to enhancing recovery of shale gas. The formation of crack network largely depends on initiation and propagation of microcracks. To reveal the influence of different loading methods on the propagation of mineral-scale microcracks, this study used the Voronoi tessellation technique to establish a cohesive zone model of shale mineral distribution and applied six different boundary conditions to represent different loading methods. Crack path characteristics, rupture characteristics, continuous crack propagation and turning, and en echelon intermittent crack propagation under different loading methods were compared and analyzed. The essence of different loading methods affecting the length and complexity of cracks was the spreading range of tensile microcracks. The mechanical properties of minerals led to dissimilarities in continuous crack propagation and turning. The formation and propagation of en echelon intermittent fractures of different scales were mainly impacted by the heterogeneity of minerals and mineral aggregates. The spreading direction and connection form of en echelon intermittent fractures were mainly affected by the loading method. Conclusions arising from mineral-scale simulations contribute to understanding the mechanism of microcrack propagation resulting from different loading methods, and these conclusions have a guiding significance to enhanced shale gas recovery.

Heterogeneous sequences of exhumed fault rocks preserve a record of the long-term evolution of fault strength and deformation behaviour during prolonged tectonic activity. Along the Outer Hebrides Fault Zone (OHFZ) in NW Scotland, numerous pseudotachylytes record palaeoseismic slip events within sequences of mylonites, cataclasites and phyllonites. To date, the kinematics and controls on seismicity within the long active history of the OHFZ have been poorly constrained. Additional uncertainties over the relative location of a meteorite impact and possible pre-OHFZ brittle faulting also complicate interpretation of the diffuse seismic record. We present kinematic analyses of seismicity in the OHFZ, combining observations of offset markers, en echelon injection veins and injection vein geometry to reconstruct slip directions and stress fields. This new dataset indicates that a range of fault orientations, slip directions and slip senses hosted seismicity in the OHFZ. Such complexity requires several stress field orientations, in contrast with the NW–SE Caledonian compression traditionally attributed to frictional melting along the OHFZ, indicating that seismicity had a long-term presence across the fault zone. Persistence of strong frictional failure alongside the simultaneous development of weak fault rocks and phyllonitic shear zones in parts of the OHFZ has significant implications for understanding seismic hazard along mature continental faults. Supplementary material: Tables listing analysed orientation measurements plus further information and sensitivity testing of palaeostress analysis parameters are available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.5134797

The near-surface of London is faulted, although the locations, architecture and tectonic origins of the faults are broadly unknown. This presents serious issues for geotechnical engineering in London and has implications for our structural understanding of the London Basin. The region is a product of Alpine compression, yet it is unclear whether these major faults are new Alpine shears or reactivated basement faults. We assess the plausibility of Alpine reactivation and inheritance of basement faults in London through three investigations: analysing structures in the near-surface; mechanically assessing the feasibility of basement fault reactivation under Alpine stress conditions; and comparing inheritance mechanisms with observations in London and the Thames Estuary. Three major en echelon fault sets are identified. These appear to have compartmentalized London9s near-surface geology and are all interpreted to be products of Alpine reactivation of the underlying basement faults. Fault interaction and linkage is evidenced by complex zones of intense faulting identified by tunnelling projects. The role of new structural development in accommodating Alpine compression is considered to have been comparatively minor. The lack of major faulting in the basin9s interior may reflect the competence of the underlying Anglo–Brabant Massif in restricting Alpine strains to its margins. Thematic collection: This article is part of the Geology of London and its implications for ground engineering collection available at: https://www.lyellcollection.org/cc/london-basin

During extension of the continental lithosphere, rift basins develop. These are often initially offset, and must interact and connect in order to create a continuous rift system that may ultimately achieve break-up. When simulating extensional tectonics and rift interaction structures, analogue and numerical modellers often apply a continuous extension rate along the strike of a rift or rift system. Yet in nature significant extension velocity variations occur along rifts and plate boundaries as a natural consequence of tectonic plates moving apart about a pole of rotation, resulting in rotational extension, and associated rift propagation and structural gradients. Here we present various analogue tectonic experiments to assess rift interaction structures forming in orthogonal extension settings versus rotational extension settings. Our modelling efforts show that rotational extension and orthogonal extension produce significantly different large-scale structures. Rotational extension can cause important variations in rift maturity between rift segments, delay rift interaction zone development, and make rift segments propagate in opposite directions. Still, local features in a rotational extension system can often be regarded as evolving in an orthogonal extension setting. Furthermore, we find that various degrees of rift underlap produce three basic modes of rift linkage structures. Low underlap distance (high angle φ) experiments develop rift pass structures. With increasing underlap distance (φ = ca. 40°), transfer zone basins develop. High degrees of underlap (φ ≤ 30°) tend to result in en echelon sub-basins. Our results match with data from previous modelling efforts and natural examples. We furthermore propose a large-scale tectonic scenario for the East African Rift System based on rotational extension and associated rift propagation. These insights may also be applicable when studying other large-scale rift systems.

Strike-slip faulting often develops en echelon faulting resulting from Riedel shears. When faulted basement rocks are covered by thick unconsolidated deposits, this en echelon faulting leads to the subsequent evolution of a series of pop-ups along the fault during cumulative displacement. Although previous sandbox experiments and numerical simulations have examined the evolutionary processes for Riedel-shear pop-up structure formation, few field examples have been reported until now concerning (1) the time-series of evolutionary processes of pop-up structure generation and (2) time periods necessary to reach the stage of a “throughgoing fault zone”. The Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line (ISTL) fault zone is among the largest and fastest-slipping active fault zones in Japan, and a series of tectonic pop-ups related to left-lateral strike-slip displacement have developed in the Fujimi area in the central to southern part of the fault zone. This area is covered by thick (~820 m) unconsolidated deposits, which have resulted in Riedel-shear pop-up structures. We conducted a geomorphic analysis, an extensive drilling survey, and pit excavation survey on a pop-up in the Misayama-Godo area of Fujimi, and concluded that (1) the pop-up structures in the Misayama-Godo area have been built up by two marginal faults between ~100 ka and ~10–20 ka, and (2) the fault displacement at depth has been concentrated on the faults that run across the pop-up structures (corresponding to the “throughgoing fault zone”) since ~10–20 ka. One of the faults that run across the pop-up structures probably slipped during the most recent earthquake in the central to southern part of the ISTL fault zone. This study is presented as a robust field example of the evolution of Riedel-shear pop-up structures during cumulative strike-slip faulting.

Landslide hazards frequently occur in the Chinese Loess Plateau every year, causing devastating casualties, damage to engineering structures, and reduction in land resources. This work presents an experimental investigation of four samples retrieved from Jingyang in the southeast of the Chinese Loess Plateau, using ring shear tests and microscopic observation, in an attempt to explore the shear behavior of loess and paleosol under the larger deformations that are involved in landslide hazards. The results of ring shear tests reveal that the loess and paleosol samples exhibited different strength characteristics. The residual strength envelopes could be assumed to be a straight line, and the overconsolidated state had negligible influence on the residual shear strength. After the shear experiment, shear bands were studied from both macroscopic and microscopic perspectives. Macroscopic observation and mechanical analysis indicate that all samples developed a main horizontal failure plane related to the maximum shear stress, while loess samples also developed en echelon failure planes tilting from the horizontal at angles of 14–18°, which are interpreted as Coulomb slip planes. Scanning electron microscopy reveals that the particles inside shear bands tend to be re-oriented. Particle crushing occurred in the shear process, which was also verified by particle size distribution analysis.

The aim of this paper is to investigate the brittle failure mechanism of rock slopes with non-persistent en-echelon joints using the extended finite element method (XFEM). In the research, a novel geometrical method distinguished from the conventional level set method is proposed to describe the cracks in the XFEM. The numerical form of the J-integral considering the effect of the bode force and the frictional contact force is provided. Moreover, a refined coalescence method is proposed. Then, the state function employed to define the state of the crack and the method used to define the crack growth increment are introduced. Next, some numerical tests are carried out to validate the feasibility of the XFEM. Finally, two typical rock slope modes are provided to illustrate the mechanism of the step-path brittle failure of rock slopes.

Pre-Cambrian to Paleocene age sedimentary rocks predominantly characterize the fold and thrust belt of eastern Hazara division. The Hazara Slate Formation is the oldest rock unit which represents the Precambrian sequence. The Permian and Triassic sequences are missing. The Jurassic sequence comprises Samana Suk Formation whereas the Cretaceous exposed is Chichali and Lumshiwal formations. The Eocene sequence consists of Nammal and Sakessar formations. The structural fabric of the area is mainly attributed to a series of northwest trending parallel to en echelon anticlines and synclines. Most of these folds are found to be asymmetric and are Northwest facing. Several thrust faults verging both to the north have been mapped that generally dissect the forelimbs of the anticlinal structures. But the following study going to be focus on surface structural features as well as subsurface projections of folds and faults. Study of such structural features has get prime importance in economic geology such as petroleum geology, mining geology and engineering geology. In our study area subsurface projection of folds and faults along the structural transects of the area suggests that these structures have formed as a result of shortening associated with ramping from a regional basal decollement. All the structures clearly demonstrate that the eastern Hazara area has been subjected to compressional deformation/stresses oriented northeast southwest. The repetition of rock units indicates, folding in the area and thrusting of Pre-Cambrian Hazara Formation over younger Paleocene Lockhart Formation, evidence of thrust fault. There are unconformable contacts between Hazara and Samana Suk, Chichali and Lumshiwal, Kawagarh and Hangu and Lockhart formations indicate fluctuation in the environment of deposition. The Bagnotar Fault, Dhamtaur syncline and Thai anticline are the major structural features identified and reported in the study area.

The flysch nappe outliers represent a structural setting prone to the development of deep-seated gravitational slope deformations (DSGSDs). The study area of the Palkovicke hůrky hills represents an isolated outlier of the Carpathians flysch nappes, Czech Republic. Geomorphological mapping based on field surveys and interpretation of LiDAR data reveals the occurrence of various types of slope deformations, including two DSGSDs. With the aim of detecting the main controlling factors of the DSGSDs, a multiapproach investigation combining surface and underground studies has been performed. Structural measurement points to a brachysynclinal structure composed of jointed and lithologically diverse strata with step-like topography. High-resolution LiDAR data suggest strong tectonic disruption caused by conjugated transtensional and en echelon tectonic faults controlling the course of slope segments, river valleys and landslide scarps. Four specific localities have been subjected to geophysical surveying. Kilometre-scale electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) profiles that have depths of penetration reaching the limits of the method (>150 m) were acquired across the gravitationally deformed nappe outlier. The data show the overall structural conditions of the nappe outlier consisting of alternating lithological units affected by folds and fault zones. A local subordinate anticline within the central part of the brachysynclinal structure has controlled the origin of the most morphologically pronounced DSGSDs. Other large-scale DSGSDs related to the inherited fault system potentially affect the entire N/NW segment of the studied elevation. Data integration indicate that structural conditions, including lithological boundaries, tectonic disruption and local folding to be the main controlling factors of the DSGSDs evolution.

Hybrid tension-shear fracture of rock usually occurs in underground openings, rock slopes, transtension faults, and en echelon cracks. To investigate the tension-shear strength and the transition between tensile and shear fractures in rock, experimental and numerical tension-shear tests were carried out using an auxiliary device and particle flow code (PFC2D), respectively. The deformation and shear strength of a sandstone under tension-stress were analyzed. The initial crack (the first micro-crack) and the shear failure ratio (the proportion of shear cracks in the total number of cracks) were proposed and used to describe the mechanical properties of hybrid fracture. In addition, the force chains of parallel-bonds in the PFC model were investigated. The results show that the initial crack is a tensile crack if the normal tensile stress is large, whereas it is a shear crack when the normal tensile stress is smaller. The shear failure ratio decreases linearly with increasing normal tensile stress, and the micro-cracks are all tensile cracks in the uniaxial tensile simulation, which suggests that the transition from tensile to hybrid and shear fracture is continuous and linear. Most of the bonds between particles are subjected to tension-shear stress, while some bear compression-shear stress. In the tension-shear tests, shear micro-cracks may be formed under either tension-shear stress or compressive-shear stress. A new tension-shear failure criterion was proposed, which is more accurate than the existing failure criteria and is associated with the features of microscopic fractures. The proposed criterion can account for the microscopic physical significance of the parameter in the Hoek–Brown criterion.

This paper presents a multidisciplinary structural analysis of a 165 km2 area in the Northern Rift Zone and the Tjornes Fracture Zone of Iceland, and unravels the tectonic control of the Theistareykir geothermal field and its surroundings. About 10729 fracture segments (faults, open fractures, joints) are identified in the upper Tertiary to Holocene igneous series. The segments were extracted from aerial images and hillshade, and then analyzed in terms of number of sets, geometry, motions, frequency, and relative age. The correlation with surface geothermal manifestations, resistivity, earthquakes, and occasional well data reveals the critical regional and local fractures at the surface, reservoir level and greater depth. The main conclusions of this study are: 1) The structural pattern consists of N-S rift-parallel extensional fractures and the Riedel shears of the transform zone striking NNE, ENE, E-W, WNW and NW, which compartmentalize together the blocks at any scale. 2) The en echelon segmentation shows strike and oblique slips on the Riedel shears, with a dextral component on the WNW and NW planes and a sinistral component on the NNE to ENE faults. 3) Fractures form under the influence of the transform mechanism and the effect of rifting becomes significant only with time. 4) The WNW dextral oblique-slip Storihver Fault of the transform zone has a horsetail splay that extends eastwards into the geothermal field. There, this structure, along with few NW, ENE, NNE and N-S fractures, controls the alteration, alignment of fumaroles, emanating deep gases. These fractures also rupture during natural or induced earthquakes. 5) The resistivity anomalies present en echelon geometries controlled by the six fracture sets. These anomalies display clockwise and anticlockwise rotations within the upper 8 km crustal depth, but at 8 km depth, only three sets (the N-S rift structures, and the E-W and the NW Riedel shears) are present at the rift and transform plate boundaries. Results of this study are relevant to resource exploration in other complex extensional contexts where rift and transform interact.ooo

The mechanism and evolution of fault linkage is important in the growth and development of large faults. Here we investigate the role of coseismic stress changes in shaping the hard-links between parallel normal fault segments (or faults), by comparing numerical models of the Coulomb stress change from simulated earthquakes on two en echelon fault segments to natural observations of hard-linked fault geometry. We consider three simplified linking fault geometries: 1) fault bend; 2) breached relay ramp; and 3) strike-slip transform fault. We consider scenarios where either one or both segments rupture and vary the distance between segment tips. Fault bends and breached relay ramps are favoured where segments underlap, or when the strike-perpendicular distance between overlapping segments is less than 20% of their total length, matching all documented examples. Transform fault linkage geometries are preferred when overlapping segments are laterally offset at larger distances. Few transform faults exist in continental extensional settings, and our model suggests that propagating faults or fault segments may first link through fault bends or breached ramps before reaching sufficient overlap for a transform fault to develop. Our results suggest that Coulomb stresses arising from multi-segment ruptures or repeated earthquakes are consistent with natural observations of the geometry of hard-links between parallel normal fault segments

The aim of our study is to call attention to the potential of sigmoidal tension gashes to estimate shear strain and bulk volume change of shear zones. The formation mechanisms of en echelon vein arrays and tension gashes within shear zones as well as the developement of sigmoidal vein shapes are discussed in detail. A numerical method is presented that enables to define the shear strain and dilational components of shear zones. Two potential models of tension gash formation are discussed. In order to use the proper calculation method, it is essential to determine the formation mechanism of the particular tension gash arrays. For this purpose, a detailed guide is presented. The applicability of the methodology mentioned above is introduced on selected borehole samples from the Boda Claystone Formation (Mecsek Mts., BAF–2 well). The quantified values based on the different models are a) passive rotation model: shear strain γ = 0,74 and 0,73; bulk volume change -49% and -57%, b) folded bridge model: shear strain γ = 0,71 and γ = 0,63; bulk volume change -46% and -41%. Based on these shear strain and volume change values, we suppose that the studied shear zones of the BAF–2 well supported similar deformation. According to our criteria system, the investigated shear zones were formed by the folded bridge mechanism.

The article presents theoretical pre-requisites for gold mineralization in the Jurassic black shale strata of the Krasnaya Polyana geostructural zone of the North Caucasus. A brief historical review of investigation and extraction of gold in the area of the Mzymta and Shahe rivers was made. The search criteria and criteria of endogenous precious metal mineralization in black shale are identified: the presence of magmatic vein complexes in the region, lithostratigraphic and lithogeochemical barriers, deep-seated regional faults and other en echelon faults, sulphide mineralization. In 2013, during a geological field trip, the ore zone on the right side of the Mzymta River was located and investigated. Mineralized black shale and Mesozoic limestone cut through the intrusive body of gabbro-diorites, with a complex zonal structure. The microscopic analysis data showed that a significant part of the ore mineralization is represented by pyrite with globular structure, which is an important criterion in the genesis of sulfide deposits. Increased sulfide content, structural features of magmatic bodies, as well as chemical analysis data indicate their prospectivity for gold content.

The Pamir orogen, Central Asia, is the result of the ongoing northward advance of the Indian continent causing shortening inside Asia. Geodetic and seismic data place the most intense deformation along the northern rim of the Pamir, but the recent 7 December 2015, Mw7.2 Sarez earthquake occurred in the Pamir's interior. We present a distributed slip model of this earthquake using coseismic geodetic data and postseismic field observations. The earthquake ruptured an ∼80 km long, subvertical, sinistral fault consisting of three right-stepping segments from the surface to ∼30 km depth with a maximum slip of three meters in the upper 10 km of the crust. The coseismic slip model agrees well with en echelon secondary surface breaks that are partly influenced by liquefaction-induced mass movements. These structures reveal up to 2 m of sinistral offset along the northern, low-offset segment of modeled rupture. The 2015 event initiated close to the presumed epicenter of the 1911 Mw∼7.3 Lake Sarez earthquake, which had a similar strike-slip mechanism. These earthquakes highlight the importance of NE trending sinistral faults in the active tectonics of the Pamir. Strike-slip deformation accommodates shear between the rapidly northward moving eastern Pamir and the Tajik basin in the west and is part of the westward (lateral) extrusion of thickened Pamir plateau crust into the Tajik basin. The Sarez-Karakul fault system and the two large Sarez earthquakes likely are crustal expressions of the underthrusting of the northwestern leading edge of the Indian mantle lithosphere beneath the Pamir.

Nine sets of sand-box experiments were designed according to actual geologic data to investigate the evolution pattern and development mechanism of simple shear strike-slip fault zone using the fault CT scanning technique. The experimental results show that R (Riedel) shears were developed early and more in number, and one set of these faults intersected with the principal displacement zone (PDZ) at relatively lower angle; the P shears (being in symmetrical distribution with the R shears) and Y shears (subparallel to PDZ) were developed later than the R shears, and the fault zone was through-going only after the formation of Y shears. The through-going process of strike-slip fault zone can be divided into four stages: embryonic stage, R (Riedel) shears development stage, P shears and Y shears development stage, and through-going stage of fault zone. In the process, the faults developed progressively from the basement to the top cover, the faults spread upward in the profile at embryonic stage, and then converged toward the PDZ on the plane at R shears development stage. The modeling supports that the en echelon structure developed in “helicoidally drag” pattern, however, the length of the en echelon fault grew linearly doubling the growth rate of its depth, and the fault intersection angle with the PDZ decreased in quadratic function with the increase of its depth. The analysis reveals that cover thickness and the maximum principal stress direction are the main factors causing the difference in “helicoidally drag” structure. The modeling provides guidance for the strike-slip fault interpretation and evolution study, and layering and segmenting faults in the marine carbonates of the Tarim Basin. Key words: strike-slip fault zone, analogue modeling, structural evolution, en echelon structure, “helicoidally drag” pattern, Tarim Basin

Field investigations and analyses of airborne LiDAR data reveal that the 2016 Mw7.1 Kumamoto earthquake produced a ∼40-km-long surface rupture zone with a typical conjugate Riedel shearing fault structure along the pre-existing right-lateral strike-slip Hinagu-Futagawa Fault Zone (HFFZ). The conjugate Riedel shearing structure comprises two sets of coseismic shear fault zones that are oriented to NE-SW to ENE-WSW and WNW-ESE to E-W. The NE-SW to ENE-WSW-trending shear fault zone is characterized by R Riedel shear structures with right-lateral strike-slip displacement of up to 2.5 m, including left-stepping en echelon cracks (T-shear) and mole tracks (P-shear). In contrast, the WNW-ESE to E-W-trending shear fault zone is dominated by R′ Riedel shear structures with left-lateral displacement of up to 1.3 m, including right-stepping en echelon tension cracks (T) and mole tracks (P), which are concentrated in a zone of

The influence of the highly oblique plate convergence at the northern Lesser Antilles onto the margin strain partitioning and deformation pattern, although frequently invoked, has never been clearly imaged. The Anegada Passage is a set of basins and deep valleys, regularly related to the southern boundary of the Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands (PRVI) microplate. Despite the publications of various tectonic models mostly based on bathymetric data, the tectonic origin and deformation of this Passage remains unconstrained in the absence of deep structure imaging. During cruises Antithesis 1 and 3 (2013–2016), we recorded the first deep multichannel seismic images and new multibeam data in the northern Lesser Antilles margin segment in order to shed a new light on the structure and tectonic pattern of the Anegada Passage. We image the northeastern extent of the Anegada Passage, from the Sombrero Basin to the Lesser Antilles margin front. Our results reveal that this northeastern segment is an EW trending left-stepping en echelon strike-slip system that consists of the Sombrero and Malliwana pull-apart basins, the Malliwana and Anguilla left-lateral faults, and the NE-SW compressional restraining bend at the Malliwana Hill. Reviewing the structure of the Anegada Passage, from the south of Puerto Rico to the Lesser Antilles margin front, reveals a polyphased tectonic history. The Anegada Passage is formed by a NW-SE extension, possibly related to the rotation or escape of PRVI block due to collision of the Bahamas Bank. Currently, it is deformed by an active WNW-ESE strike-slip deformation associated to the shear component of the strain partitioning resulting from the subduction obliquity.

We present a field-based work which illustrates the fracture patterns of the carbonate-silicoclastic Yacoraite Formation in the Tin Tin anticline, a basement fault-related fold located in southern part of the Eastern Cordillera, northwestern Argentina. The fracture patterns include small-scale strike-slip faults (vertical shear fractures and en echelon arrays), thrust faults, extension fractures (joints, veins and normal faults) and stylolites. Extensional mesostructures were formed by along-foreland stretching, prior to the contractional ones that were formed by the layer-parallel shortening mechanism. Furthermore, all fractures are interpreted to be formed before or at the early stages of folding and thrusting during the Andean contraction, all of them belonging to the Eocene thrust belt-foreland system at the Calchaquí Valley of northwestern Argentina., Centro de Investigaciones Geológicas

In this field study we reinterpret the narrow eastern North Pyrenean Zone, France, as an inverted salt-rich transtensional rift system based on identification of halokinetic depositional sequences across rift platform to distal rift margin domains with a cumulative throw of >2.8 km on steep Cretaceous faults. The rift platform records extension on detached rotational faults above Triassic evaporites from Jurassic to Aptian with uplift and erosion during the Albian. Transtensional Aptian–Albian minibasins align along the salt-rich rift margin fault zone. In the Aptian–Albian main rift large en echelon synclinal minibasins developed between salt walls, although Jurassic diapiric evolution is likely. Upper Cretaceous units locally record continuing diapirism. The Boucheville and Bas Agly depocentres, altered by synrift HT metamorphism, form the distal rift domain terminating south against the North Pyrenean Fault. The narrowness of the Pyrenean rift, shape of minibasins, en echelon oblique synclinal depocentres and folds coupled with a discontinuous distribution and intensity of HT metamorphism support a transtensional regime along the Iberia–Europe plate margin during late Early and early Late Cretaceous. In this model, the distal European margin comprises deep faults limiting laterally discontinuous crustal domains and ‘hot’ pull-apart basins with mantle rocks directly beneath sedimentary cover., This work was funded by the French ANR project PYRAMID; the OROGEN project financed by Total, BRGM and the CNRS; the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Grant/Award Number SUBTETIS (PIE-CSIC-201830E039); and Generalitat de Catalunya, Grant/Award Number AGAUR 2017 SGR 847.

The Afar region in East Africa is a key locality for studying continental break-up. Within Afar, passive margins are developing, of which the Southern Afar Margin (SAM) contains synthetic (basinward) faulting, whereas crustal flexure, antithetic faulting and marginal grabens occur along the Western Afar Margin (WAM). Numerous conflicting scenarios for the evolution of the WAM exist. In this analogue modelling study we test various factors that may affect the development of a WAM-style passive margin: brittle crustal thickness, (en echelon) rheological contrasts, sedimentation and oblique extension. Our experimental results illustrate how marginal flexure due to a weak lower crust below Afar can elegantly account for the structural features of the WAM. Brittle crustal thickness controls what structures occur: a thinner brittle crust accommodates flexure internally, whereas increasing brittle thicknesses lead to faulting. Large escarpment faults develop early on, followed by late-stage antithetic faulting and marginal grabens. A thicker brittle crust also causes enhanced subsidence, and increased strength contrasts between lower crustal domains leads to more localized deformation. Basin-wide sedimentation causes enhanced subsidence, as well as longer activity along large synthetic (escarpment) faults. Finally, oblique extension clearly prevents the development of marginal grabens, which only form in near-orthogonal extension. These results support a tectonic scenario involving initial oblique extension due to Arabian plate motion, creating echelon synthetic escarpment faults along the WAM. After the Danakil Block started its independent rotation, near-orthogonal extension conditions were established, allowing (enhanced) marginal flexure, antithetic faulting and marginal graben formation along the older en echelon escarpment. Differences in extension obliquity may also explain the differences in structural architectures between the WAM and SAM. The characteristics of the WAM are typical of magma-rich passive margins, and the margin has great potential for studying continental break-up and (magma-rich) passive margin formation.

The Shunbei region, situated in the Tarim Basin, exhibits exploration potential. Previous exploration experience suggests that the Shun I strike-slip fault zone plays an important role in reservoir formation and hydrocarbon accumulation. In this study, based on the interpretation of three-dimensional seismic data, the structural characteristics of the Shun I strike-slip fault zone were identified. This study revealed that the Shun I strike-slip fault zone is characterized by vertical stratification, plane segmentation, multiple evolution staging, and heterogeneity of storage control. Influenced by tectonic activities during five periods, namely the early Caledonian, middle Caledonian, late Caledonian-early Hercynian, late Hercynian, and Indosinian-Himalayan periods, the Shun I strike-slip fault zone mainly developed high-angle strike-slip faults and en echelon normal faults during the Paleozoic. The Mesozoic–Cenozoic developed primarily small-scale extensional faults without spatial coupling with underlying strike-slip faults. The Shun I strike-slip fault zone consists of both hydrocarbon migration pathways and hydrocarbon traps. High-quality reservoirs generally develop along faults. Fractures in the damage zone of the Shun I fault control the formation of reservoir space. The Shun I strike-slip fault zone exhibits distinct segmentation characteristics. The Shun I strike-slip fault zone can be divided into nine segments of three types: vertical, pull-apart, and push-up. The discontinuity along the strike of the Shun I strike-slip fault zone partially controls the heterogeneity of the reservoir distribution, thus affecting reservoir connectivity. The nature of different segments of the strike-slip fault zone controls the scale and quality of reservoir development and restricts the formation of oil and gas reservoirs. Three types of oil control models were established for the Shun I strike-slip fault zone. Our findings indicate that the central main fault plane of the vertical segment pattern is the richest in hydrocarbons. Oil and gas accumulation along the fault plane of the flower structure in the pull-apart or push-up segments.

The Jinwozi gold deposit is one of the most economic gold deposits in the Beishan Orogen, NW China. The gold orebodies mainly occur as quartz veins hosted in Jinwozi granite. In this contribution, based on a comprehensive study including field investigation of ore geology, mineralogy, geochemistry, geochronology, and fluid inclusion microthermometry, we discuss the origin and evolution of the ore fluids and the gold precipitation mechanism at the Jinwozi deposit. The mineralization process includes three stages, i.e., the early quartz-pyrite veins, main-stage quartz-sulfide veins, and late carbonate-quartz veinlets, with gold being introduced in the main stage. Four types of fluid inclusions, i.e., PC-, C-, W-, and S-types, were observed and investigated in microthermometry. The early-stage quartz contains C-type FIs with a salinity of 3.9 to 9.0 (av. 5.8 ± 1.2) wt.% NaCl eqv., CO2 content of 10 to 85 vol%, and total homogenization temperature (Th) of 254 to 358 °C (av. 302 ± 17 °C). It shows that the ore fluids are low salinity, CO2-rich and mesothermal, and identical to those of orogenic-type gold deposits. The C-type FIs in the main stage quartz show salinity of 3.0 to 9.0 (av. 4.9 ± 1.2) wt.% NaCl eqv., CO2 contents of 8 to 90 vol% and Th of 210 to 326 °C (av. 256 ± 29 °C). The W-type FIs yield salinity of 5.5 to 10.2 (av. 8.5 ± 0.9) wt.% NaCl eqv.. and Th of 197 to 305 °C (av. 247 ± 25 °C). Gold precipitation was caused by phase separation that supported by plentiful immiscibility fluid inclusion assemblages observed in main stage quartz. Trapping pressures of C-type FIs are estimated at 90.5–286 MPa and 57.7–279 MPa for the early and main stages, corresponding to mineralization depths of ~10.4 km and ~5.8 km, respectively. Last but not least, the homogenization temperatures of the FIs in the main stage quartz gradually increase with depth (from 1590 m, through 1510 m, to 1477 m ASL) at the #3p4 orebody, but suddenly decrease at depth of 1442 m ASL. This temperature decreases possibly indicates the appearance of a new orebody beneath the currently exploited #3p4 orebody occurring in echelon formation.

This work is based on the vortex lattice method using a “decambering” approach, which accounts for flow separation and makes the separated flow to follow viscous flow condition at high angles of attack over the airfoil and 3D wings. This method used to study the aerodynamic hysteresis of two wings configuration at near stall and post-stall flow conditions. The hysteresis of different data and their effect have been studied. The effect of shifting stall due to presence of hysteresis for forward and backward flow regimes also has been reported.

In microseismicity analyses, reliable focal mechanisms can typically be obtained for only a small subset of located events. We address this limitation here, presenting a framework for determining robust focal mechanisms for entire populations of very small events. To achieve this, we resolve relative P- and S-wave polarities between pairs of waveforms using their signed correlation coefficients - a byproduct of previously performed precise earthquake relocation. We then use cluster analysis to group events with similar patterns of polarities across the network. Finally, we apply a standard mechanism inversion to the grouped data, using either catalog or correlation-derived P-wave polarity datasets. This approach has great potential for enhancing analyses of spatially concentrated microseismicity such as earthquake swarms, mainshock-aftershock sequences, and industrial reservoir stimulation or injection-induced seismic sequences. To demonstrate its utility, we apply this technique to the 2014 Long Valley Caldera earthquake swarm. In our analysis, 85% of events (7212 out of 8494 located by Shelly et al. [2016]) fall within five well-constrained mechanism clusters, more than 12 times the number with network-determined mechanisms. Of the earthquakes we characterize, 3023 (42%) of have magnitudes smaller than 0.0. We find that mechanism variations are strongly associated with corresponding hypocentral structure, yet mechanism heterogeneity also occurs where it cannot be resolved by hypocentral patterns, often confined to small-magnitude events. Small (5-20°) rotations between mechanism orientations and earthquake location trends persist when we apply 3D velocity models and might reflect a geometry of en echelon, interlinked shear and dilational faulting.

Here we present the results of the inversion of a new geodetic data set covering the 2012 Emilia seismic sequence and the following 1 year of postseismic deformation. Modeling of the geodetic data together with the use of a catalog of 3-D relocated aftershocks allows us to constrain the rupture geometries and the coseismic and postseismic slip distributions for the two main events (Mw 6.1 and 6.0) of the sequence and to explore how these thrust events have interacted with each other. Dislocation modeling reveals that the first event ruptured a slip patch located in the center of the Middle Ferrara thrust with up to 1 m of reverse slip. The modeling of the second event, located about 15 km to the southwest, indicates a main patch with up to 60 cm of slip initiated in the deeper and flatter portion of the Mirandola thrust and progressively propagated postseismically toward the top section of the rupture plane, where most of the aftershocks and afterslip occurred. Our results also indicate that between the two main events, a third thrust segment was activated releasing a pulse of aseismic slip equivalent to a Mw 5.8 event. Coulomb stress changes suggest that the aseismic event was likely triggered by the preceding main shock and that the aseismic slip event probably brought the second fault closer to failure. Our findings show significant correlations between static stress changes and seismicity and suggest that stress interaction between earthquakes plays a significant role among continental en echelon thrusts.

Structural, anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS), and paleomagnetic data record patterns of layer-parallel shortening (LPS), vertical-axis rotation, and regional fault-fold evolution across the Sweetwater Arch, a major west to WNW trending, basement-cored Laramide uplift in Wyoming. The southern arch flank is bounded by a WNW striking reverse fault zone that imbricated basement and cover rocks, the northern flank is bounded by a west striking fault zone with a component of strike-slip and NW trending en echelon folds, and the eastern plunge transitions into an area of multiple-trending faults and folds. Synorogenic strata record major arch uplift from Maastrichtian to Early Eocene time, followed by arch collapse. LPS, with development of systematic minor fault sets and AMS lineations, preceded large-scale folding. LPS directions, estimated from both minor fault and AMS data, were oriented WSW along the northern flank, subparallel to Laramide regional shortening, but were refracted to the SSW along the southern flank, and to the west along the eastern arch plunge. Additional minor faults developed along steep fold limbs during continued shortening, with directions remaining SSW along the southern flank but becoming more variable along the eastern plunge where an increasingly heterogeneous stress field developed as additional faults were activated along basement heterogeneities. Vertical-axis rotation was limited along the arch flanks, whereas the eastern plunge underwent counterclockwise rotation. Deflections in shortening directions were partly related to basement heterogeneities, including weak supracrustal belts on the arch flanks, a strong granitic core, and local reactivation of Precambrian shear zones.

The Havran-Balkesir Fault Zone (HBFZ) is one of the major active structures of the Southern Marmara Region, which has been shaped by the southern branch of North Anatolian fault since the Pliocene. HBFZ is a 10-12km wide, 120km long, right-lateral strike-slip fault zone that consists of two ENE-striking main faults, namely, the Havran-Balya and Balkesir faults. The 90-km-long Havran-Balya fault exhibits right-stepping en echelon geometry and is made up of (1) Havran, (2) Osmanlar, (3) Turplu and (4) Ovack fault segments. On the eastern part, the 70-km-long Balkesir fault is divided into two fault segments; (1) Gokceyaz and (2) Kepsut. We estimated the long-term slip rate between 3.59 and 3.78mm/yr using river offset. The Kepsut, Gokceyaz and Ovack fault segments are capable of generating an earthquake with a moment magnitude of up to 7.2. Detailed palaeoseismological studies show that the HBFZ is responsible for some surface faulting earthquakes with an average recurrence interval of 1000-2000years during the late Holocene. Considering the fact that there was no evidence of a surface-ruptured earthquake for 2000years, it can be stated that there is a seismic gap on the Gokceyaz fault segment.

Transpressive deformation at the northern Caribbean plate boundary is accommodated mostly by two major strikeslip faults, but the amount and location of accommodation of the compressional component of deformation is still debated. We collected marine geophysical data including multi-beam bathymetry and multichannel seismic reflection profiles along this plate boundary around Hispaniola, in the Jamaica Passage and in the Gulf of Gonâve. The data set allows us to image the offshore active strike-slip faults as well as the compressional structures. We confirm that the Enriquillo-Plantain-Garden Fault Zone (EPGFZ) in the Jamaica Passage has a primary strike-slip motion, as indicated by active left-lateral strike-sliprelated structures, i.e.: restraining bend, asymmetrical basin, en echelon pressures ridges and horsetail splay. Based on topographic cross-sections across the EPGFZ, we image a very limited compressional component, if any, for at least the western part of the Jamaica Passage. Toward the east of the Jamaica Passage, the fault trace becomes more complex and we identify adjacent compressional structures. In the Gulf of Gonâve, distributed folding and thrust faulting of the most recent sediments indicate active pervasive compressional tectonics. Estimates of shortening in the Jamaica Passage and in the Gulf of Gonâve indicate an increase of the compressional component of deformation towards the east, which nonetheless remains very small compared to that inferred from block modelling based on GPS measurements

Industry seismic reflection data spanning the Rocky Mountain Cordillera front ranges of northwest Montana were reprocessed and interpreted in this study. Five seismic profiles represent 160 km of deep reflection data collected in 1983 that span the eastern Purcell anticlinorium, Rocky Mountain Trench (RMT), Rocky Mountain Basal Decollement (RMBD), and Lewis thrust. The data were reprocessed using modern techniques including refraction statics, pre-stack time migration (PSTM), and pre- and post-stack depth migration. Results indicate the RMBD is 8–13 km below the Earth's surface and dip 3–10° west. Evidence for the autochthonous Mesoproterozoic Belt and basal Cambrian rocks beneath the RMBD is present in all of the profiles and appears to extend east of the RMT. The Lewis thrust was identified in the seismic profiles and appears to sole into the RMBD east of the RMT. The RMT fault system has a dip displacement of 3–4 km and forms a half graben filled with 1 km of unconsolidated Tertiary sedimentary deposits. The RMT and adjacent Flathead fault systems are interpreted to be structurally linked and may represent a synthetic, en echelon fault system.

Southern Calabria and the NE corner of Sicily (Italy) were struck in 1783 and 1908 A.D. by two of the most catastrophic earthquakes ever in European history. Although it is generally acknowledged that the seisms were yielded by normal faults rupturing the upper crust of the Calabria-Peloritani terrane, no consensus exists on seismogenic source location and orientation. Here we report on a high-resolution low-altitude aeromagnetic survey of southern Calabria and Messina Straits. In southern Calabria we document a broad weakly positive (5–10 nT) anomaly zone interrupted by three en echelon SW-NE null to negative magnetic anomaly corridors. Euler deconvolution and magnetic modeling show that the anomaly pattern is produced by a 1–1.5 km thick crustal “layer” located within 3 km depth. This layer is offset by a 25 km long NE trending fault that corresponds to the Armo normal fault, recently inferred to be the source for the 1908 earthquake. Few kilometers to the south, we also document a subparallel and previously unrecognized fault, entering the Messina Straits and likely joining the Armo fault at depth. Further east, we model a 40 km long normal fault, probably extending northeastward for additional 40 km, running along the south Calabria axis from Aspromonte to the Serre mountains and partly following the 18 km long surface rupture witnessed by Deodat de Dolomieu after the 1783 earthquake. Thus, aeromagnetic data suggest that the sources of the 1783 and 1908 earthquakes are en echelon faults belonging to the same NW dipping normal fault system straddling the whole southern Calabria.

The Boda Claystone Formation, a potential host rock for high-level nuclear waste in Hungary, contains numerous sigmoidal vein arrays with angular vein terminations. These veins are excellent strain markers and can be used in the interpretation of palaeo-environments. Sigmoidal vein arrays were investigated in the BAF-2 well, which penetrates the formation to depths above 900 m with nearly 100% core recovery. The veins have antitaxial growth morphologies and are filled by calcite, anhydrite and barite–celestine phases. To estimate the volume change in shear zones, we used geometric, mass-balance and density-change calculations. These methods exhibit different volume loss rates. The geometric approach indicates a large amount of volume loss, whereas the isocon method and density-change approach suggest that volume loss in the shear zones was less than 10%. We propose that the volume loss in the shear zone occurred because of tectonic compaction. Vein shapes indicate formation under compressional stress fields. Based on their intersections with other vein generations, the sigmoidal en echelon vein generation is determined to be one of the youngest structures in the well, which probably formed during a Late Cretaceous compression event.

To further understand the fracture behavior of rock materials containing en echelon flawsand determine precursor information for the final collapse of damaged mineral assemblies undercompression, a series of uniaxial compression experiments using a loading system, an acousticemission system and a video camera was conducted on sandstone specimens containing en echelonflaws. The mechanical properties, energy dissipation characteristics and acoustic emissionparameters of compression failure of selected specimens were successively analyzed. The resultsshowed that crack initiation was accompanied by a stress drop, step-like characteristics on theenergy consumption curve and increased crackling noises, which were used as early warningsignals before the final collapse happened. In addition, we used the histogram statistics methodand maximum likelihood method to analyze the distribution of acoustic emission energy anddetermined that the acoustic emission energy distributions of sandstone specimens containing enechelon flaws followed a power law. With the progress of the experiment, the optimum exponentschanged in different stages and gradually decreased as failure was approached, which could alsobe used as an early warning signal before the final collapse happened. This paper may providesome theoretical basis for monitoring and warning about the collapse and instability of engineeringrock masses containing en echelon flaws.

Experiments were carried out to observe the variation in propagation and linkage of parallel en-echelon cracks with varying orientation of the crack array and different relative position of the cracks within the array in an extensional regime. Two-layered analogue model, with a basal layer of pitch overlain by a layer of kaolin paste was used in the experiments. En-echelon cracks were pre-cut within the kaolin layer maintaining specific geometrical parameters of the cracks (e.g., length, centre spacing, separation) in such a manner that there was a weak (though not negligible) local tip-induced stress favouring curvature of adjacent crack tips towards one another. The results obtained were matched with natural pattern of linkage of veins, rift basins and spreading ridges, as described in the relevant literature. The experimental results showed that the final pattern of linkage between the cracks was a result of initial deflection of crack tip from its plane due to combined effect of local and far-field stress. When the deflection of tip from the crack plane was between $$0{^{\circ }}$$ to $$45{^{\circ }}$$ , a ‘tip to wall’ linkage took place between adjacent cracks isolating a rhombohedral area in the interaction zone. The resultant structure could be geometrically comparable to a micro-plate-like structure isolated due to linkage of ridge segments initially forming an overlapping spreading centre (OSC). When the deflection of tip from the crack plane was greater than $$45{^{\circ }}$$ , a ‘tip to tip’ linkage between adjacent cracks took place resulting in a structure similar to a transform fault between spreading ridges and or rift basins. When effect of the remote stress opposed the tip induced stress, no linkage took place between the adjacent cracks, and finally the tips propagated straight along a plane perpendicular to the remote extension direction.