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This thesis is a grammar of Kalamang, a Papuan language of western New Guinea in the east of Indonesia. It is spoken by around 130 people on the biggest of the Karas Islands. This grammar is based on 11 months of fieldwork. The primary source of data is a corpus of more than 15 hours of spoken Kalamang recorded and transcribed between 2015 and 2019. The grammar covers a wide range of topics beyond a phonological and morphosyntactic description, including prosody, narrative styles, and information structure. More than 1000 examples illustrate the analyses, and are where possible taken from naturalistic spoken Kalamang. The descriptive approach in this grammar is informed by current linguistic theory, but is not driven by any specific school of thought. Comparison to other eastern Indonesian languages is taken into account whenever it is deemed helpful. Kalamang has several typologically interesting features, such as unpredictable stress, minimalistic give-constructions consisting of just two pronouns, aspectual markers that follow the subject, and the NP and predicate – rather than the noun and verb – as important domains of attachment. This grammar is accompanied by a an openly accessible archive of linguistic and cultural material (http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-C3E8-1@view) and a dictionary (dictionaria.clld.org/contributions/kalamang), and serves as a document of one of the world’s many endangered languages.

Descriptive perception verbs have failed to receive a uniform analysis in previous verb classifications (cf. Chomsky 1965, Rogers 1974, Hengeveld 1992, Levin 1993, Van Eynde et al. 2014). This thesis argues that the descriptive perception verbs in Dutch (i.e. eruitzien ‘look’, klinken ‘sound’, voelen ‘feel’, ruiken ‘smell’, and smaken ‘taste’) should be classified as copular verbs, much like lijken ‘seem’ and schijnen ‘seem’. This classification is supported by both the synchronic and diachronic behaviour of these verbs in Dutch. Synchronically, proposing that Germanic copular verbs (as opposed to copulas) are defined by their syntax rather than their (empty) semantics, I discuss that the Dutch descriptive perception verbs behave like stereotypical copular verbs: they require a predicative complement, usually in the form of an adjective. Semantically, the Dutch descriptive perception verbs are much like the copular verbs blijken ‘turn out’, lijken ‘seem’ and schijnen ‘seem’ in terms of epistemicity and evidentiality. Diachronically, I hypothesize that the Dutch descriptive perception verbs have evolved from one of the following two origins: either from intransitive verbs (as is the case for klinken and ruiken), much like English remain, through grammaticalization processes of semantic bleaching and reanalysis; or from cognitive perception verbs (as is the case of eruitzien and voelen), as found in Latin, Japanese and Zulu, through the process of argument reordering. The origin of smaken is not clear, and is left for future research. I show that other Germanic evidential copular verbs (i.e. lijken, schijnen ‘seem’, scheinen ‘seem’, seem) have developed diachronically in a uniform fashion, suggesting the following grammaticalization path: from a lexical verb to a copular verb, to taking a that-complement, an infinitival complement or a like-complement, and eventually being used in parenthetical constructions. The results of this thesis indicate that the Dutch descriptive perception verbs are only at the beginning of this grammaticalization path, but are on their way to becoming grammaticalized evidential copular verbs.

In this paper we discuss second position clitics in Ancient Greek, which show a remarkable ability to break up syntactic constituents. We argue against attempts to capture such data in terms of a mismatch between c-structure yield and surface string and instead propose to enrich c-structure by using a multiple context free grammar with explicit yield functions rather than an ordinary CFG.

The purpose of this brief article is to investigate four-year-olds’ interpretation of attributive measure phrases (MPs), such as 3-pound, and the role of cardinality in mediating children’s responses. In two experiments, I demonstrate that children at this age are starting to recognize that such MPs refer to a property of an individual, such as weight per unit (rather than the weight of an entire collection). Accordingly, they distinguish between attributive and pseudopartitive MPs. However, when the opportunity presents itself to treat the number word as referring to the cardinality of a set, some children succumb to this pressure, deviating from adult-like responses. I argue that the fundamental aspect of number word meaning that children take the first few years of life to master – that number words denote exact cardinality of a set of discrete objects – is precisely the aspect they must overcome when interpreting these MPs. However, the evidence shows that four-year-olds are well on their way to doing so.

Šio darbo objektas – žodis kvapas ir jo pastovus junginys nėkvapo. Darbo tikslas – atskleisti žodžio kvapas ir junginio nėkvapo vartosenos ypatumus dabartinėje rašytinėje lietuvių kalboje. Tyrimas paremtas žodžio kvapas ir junginio nėkvapo vartosenos pavyzdžių, surinktų MAT ir DLKT, analize. Lietuvių kalboje žodis kvapas nekelia jokių konkretesnių asociacijų, tai visiškai neutralus leksinis vienetas. Atliktas MAT duomenų tyrimas parodė, kad žodžio kvapas antroji reikšmė kvepėjimas yra vartojama gerokai dažniau nei pirmoji, pateikta DLKŽ6e, t. y. kvėpavimas. Ši reikšmė dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje tesudaro 10 proc. visų žodžio kvapas pavartojimo atvejų. Analizuojant MAT duomenis pastebėta, jog dabartinėje rašytinėje lietuvių kalboje vartojamas frazeologizmas nėkvapo, kuriuo pasakoma – visai nieko nėra, netgi kvapo. Siekiant išsiaiškinti šio junginio vartosenos ypatumus, išnagrinėti 283 jo pavartojimo atvejai, aptikti DLKT. Buvo pastebėta, kad junginys nėkvapo dažniau vartojamas sakiniuose, kuriuose veiksmažodis praleistas. Kai sakinyje yra veiksmažodis, labiausiai tikėtina, jog šalia nėkvapo eis nebūti ir nelikti, kurie dažniausiai esti būtojo laiko ar tariamosios nuosakos, rečiau esamojo ar būsimojo laiko. DLKT duomenų analizė atskleidė, kad frazeologinį junginį nėkvapo įprasta vartoti sakinio gale. Pažymėtina ir tai, kad dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje pastovus junginys nėkvapo gerokai dažniau vartojamas nei panašios reikšmės prielinksninės konstrukcijos be kvapo ir be jokio... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] The object of the paper is word kvapas (smell) and fixed expression nėkvapo. The work aims at showing their peculiar usage in modern Lithuanian written language. Data on the use of word kvapas and fixed expression nėkvapo, drawn from MAT (Morphologically Annotated Corpus) and DLKT (Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language) were analysed. In Lithuanian, word kvapas has no particular association, it is a completely neutral lexical unit. Analysis of MAT data revealed that it is more frequently used in its second meaning kvepėjimas (emitting smell) than the first meaning indicated in DLKŽ6e, i.e. kvėpavimas (breathing). This meaning accounts for only 10% of the use of word kvapas in modern Lithuanian. MAT data on the use of idiom nėkvapo, which means visai nieko nėra, netgi kvapo (there is nothing at all, not even a smell) and 283 examples of its usage peculiarities found in DLKT were analysed. It was found that expression nėkvapo is more frequently used in sentences where verb is omitted. When there is verb in the sentence, it is most likely that nėkvapo will be used with nebūti and nelikti, usually in past tense or subjunctive mood, less frequently in present or future tenses. Analysis of DLKT data showed that idiomatic expression nėkvapo is used at the end of a sentence. It should be noted that fixed expression nėkvapo is significantly more often used than prepositional constructions with a similar meaning be kvapo and be jokio kvapo. Analysis of DLKT data showed that... [to full text]

Kalbų sąveiką gali lemti istorinė visų kalbos lygmenų: leksinio ir semantinio, frazeologinio, fonetinio, morfologinio, sintaksinio ir stilistinio, raida. Šiame kontekste ypatingą susidomėjimą kelia frazeologinis kalbos lygmuo kalbos sistemos lygmenų hierarchijoje, nes frazeologizmams būdinga sudėtingesnė leksinė, gramatinė ir prasminė struktūra. Rusų ir latvių kalbų frazeologijos analizė parodė visišką ir dalinį didelio skaičiaus idiomų prasmių, metaforinių pagrindų ir leksinės struktūros sutapimą. Abiejose kalbose egzistuoja savita frazeologinių vienetų grupė, kilusi iš antikinės literatūros ir biblijos. Gretinamoji rusų ir latvių (taip pat vokiečių ir latvių) kalbų frazeologinių analogijų analizė suteikia galimybę atskleisti kai kuriuos kalbų kontaktų aspektus. Mutual interaction of languages may occur in the process of their historical development on all linguistic levels: lexical and semantic, phraseological, phonetic, morphological, syntactic and stylistic. In this context, special interest is aroused by the phraseological level in the hierarchy of the levels of the language system, since phraseologisms are bestowed with more complex lexical, grammatical and notional structure. The analysis of phraseology in the Russian and Latvian languages demonstrates full and partial coincidence of meanings, figurative basis and lexical structure of a great number of phraseological units. Both in the Russian and Latvian languages a special group of phraseological units is constituted by phraseologisms from ancient literature and the Bible. The comparative analysis of Russian and Latvian (as well as German and Latvian) phraseological analogies gives us an opportunity of revealing some aspects of language contacts, the specific manifestation of this phenomenon in the realm of phraseology. Взаимодействие языков может осуществляться в процессе их исторического развития на всех лингвистических уровнях: лексико-семантическом, фразеологическом, фонетическом, морфологическом, синтаксическом и стилистическом. В этом плане особый интерес представляет фразеологический уровень в иерархии уровней языковой системы, так как фразеологизмы обладают более сложной лексико-грамматической и смысловой структурой. Фразеология русского и латышского языков сложилась в результате длительного развития соответствующих языков в условиях контактов их носителей. Источниками образования основной части фразеологизмов являются социально- исторические факторы, условия жизни и быта народа, своеобразие оценки происходящих событий, людей, процессов.

Skirtini du frazės (metakalbinio komentaro) ne tas žodis vartojimo būdai. 1. Frazė turi tiesioginę reikšmę, rodo, kad kalbėtojas (adresantas, pasakymo autorius) Nepritaria tekste pavartotam žodžiui, jį atmeta, nes, reikia suprasti, esama žodžių, labiau tinkančių Kalbamajam dalykui nusakyti. Šio vartojimo būdo savo ruožtu vėl skirtini du atvejai: A) paprastoji, dalykinė korekcija, b) korekcija kaip sintaksinė stiliaus figūra, ekspresyvios Raiškos priemonė. 2. Frazė turi perkeltinę reikšmę, jos intencija yra parodyti, kad prieš tai pasakytai minčiai, Nuomonei (paprastai pašnekovo, rečiau – savo) pritariama, ji patvirtinama. Tačiau netikslu Būtų teigti, kad šiuo atveju frazė ne tas žodis įgyja priešingą tiesioginei reikšmę (t. Y. „tas Žodis“). Dažnai, pasakius tą frazę, tarsi ją pagrindžiant, argumentuojant, ankstesnė minties Raiška tikslinama kitais, „stipresniais“ žodžiais, platesniu, išsamesniu aiškinimu ir pan. Taigi Galima sakyti, kad frazės ne tas žodis intencija tuo atveju esti pritarti pasakytai nuomonei, Bet ne tai kalbos priemonei, kuri tai nuomonei reikšti buvo pavartota. Tokiuose kontekstuose Frazė ne tas žodis atlieka panašią pragmatinę funkciją (išreiškia panašią intenciją) kaip iš Seno vartojami lietuvių kalbos pasakymai (metakalbiniai komentarai) nerandu žodžių, nėra Žodžių, trūksta žodžių, sunku apsakyti (kaip), kartais – ką ir šnekėti, ką čia bepridursi. Šie Komentarai nesusiję su korekcija, akivaizdžiai, bet kiekvienas savaip rodo pritarimą, sutikimą Su... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] Two ways of usage of the phrase (meta-linguistic comment) ne tas žodis (the wrong word) are to be singled out. 1. The phrase has a direct meaning, shows that a speaker (addresser, the utterance’s author) does not approve the word used in the text, rejects it because, as it should be understood, there are some other words more suitable for characterisation of a thing spoken of. In turn, 176 Filologija 2010 (15) there are two cases of usage: a) simple, constructive correction, b) correction as a syntactic stylistic figure, means of expression. 2. The phrase has a figurative meaning, its intention is to show that the idea, opinion (usually of an interlocutor, more seldom – one’s own) is approved, supported. However, it would be inaccurate to state that the phrase ne tas žodis in this case obtains an opposite meaning to the direct one (i.e. “the right word”). Often, after saying the phrase, as if grounding, arguing it, the previous expression of the thought is detailed by other, “stronger” words, wider, more exhaustive explanation etc. Thus, it can be stated that the intention of the phrase ne tas žodis in this case is to consent to the opinion expressed but not to the linguistic means that was employed for expression of this opinion. In such contexts, the phrase the wrong word performs a similar pragmatic function (expresses a similar intention) like ancient Lithuanian utterances (meta-linguistic comments) nerandu žodžių (I cannot find any words), nėra žodžių (there are no... [to full text]

This volume investigates interface interpretation within Phase Theory, the current stage of syntactic theorizing within the ‘Minimalist Program,'the generative research enterprise instigated by Noam Chomsky over 15 years ago. The collection brings together scholars who address architectural, conceptual, and interpretive issues in the grammar. In their investigations of the interpretive interfaces, Logical Form and Phonetic Form, the chapters provide novel analyses for both new and well-known facts, address theoretical issues for Phase Theory, and contribute insights from phonology and semantics. ID: Accession Number: 273235

Standard conceptions of Locality aim to establish that a dependency between two positions may not span too long a distance. This book explores the opposite conception, Anti-Locality: Don't move too close. The model of clause structure, syntactic computation, and locality concerns Kleanthes Grohmann develops makes crucial use of derivational sub-domains, Prolific Domains, each encapsulating particular context information (thematic, agreement, discourse). The Anti-Locality Hypothesis is the attempt to exclude anti-local movement from the grammar by banning movement within a Prolific Domain, a Ba. ID: Accession Number: 253218 388

Darbas remiasi teorine prielaida, jog reikšmė randasi platesniame nei atskiro žodžio kontekste, todėl jai tirti labai svarbus yra žodžio junglumo modelis. Šį modelį galima parengti analizuojant iš tekstyno gautą tiriamojo žodžio konkordansą. Čia aptariami keli aprašomieji ir žodyniniai žodžių bei jų junginių vartosenos modeliai ir siūlomas savas variantas, užimantis tarpinę vietą tarp konkordanso ir žodyninio straipsnio ar kokio kito tolesnės analizės rezultato. Jis iliustruojamas anglų kalbos daiktavardžio mind vienaskaitos vartosenos aprašu, pusiau automatiškai gautu iš daugiau nei 50 000 konkordanso eilučių, ir nuoseklia konkordanso analizės bei junglumo modelio sintezės eiga.

The study reported here is concerned with how children acquire complex sentences for expressing their beliefs about causally related events, in the transition in language development from simple to complex syntax. Subjects were three girls and four boys, observed longitudinally from 26 to 38 months of age in their homes. Data analysis began with those observations in which each child began to produce causally related propositions without syntactic connectives, and continued until the children were about 3 years old. Two broad categories of causal meaning were expressed in the children's causal statements. Objective meaning concerned means-end and consequence relations that were evidential and fixed in the physical world. Subjective meaning expressed causal connections concerned with personal, affective, or sociocultural beliefs. While most of the children's statements expressed subjective meaning overall, the acquisition of syntactic connectives was associated with objective meaning. These results are discussed in terms of (a) the development of these children's understanding of causality and (b) the acquisition of increasingly complex language.