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Alloy steels are commonly used in many industrial and consumer products to take advantage of their strength, ductility, and toughness properties. In addition, their machinability and weldability performance make alloy steels suitable for a range of manufacturing operations. The advent of additive manufacturing technologies, such as wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), has enabled welding of alloy steels into complex and customized near net-shape products. However, the functional reliability of as-built WAAM products is often uncertain due to a lack of understanding of the effects of process parameters on the material microstructure and mechanical properties that develop during welding, primarily driven by thermal phenomena. This study investigated the influence of thermal phenomena in WAAM on the microstructure and mechanical properties of two alloy steels (G4Si1, a mild steel, and AM70, a high-strength, low-alloy steel). The interrelationships between process parameters, heating and cooling cycles of the welded part, and the resultant microstructure and mechanical properties were characterized. The welded part experienced multiple reheating cycles, a consequence of the layer-by-layer manufacturing approach. Thus, high temperature gradients at the start of the weld formed fine grain structure, while coarser grains were formed as the height of the part increases and the temperature gradient decreased. Microstructural analysis identified the presence of acicular ferrite and equiaxed ferrite structures in G4Si1 welds, as well as a small volume fraction of pearlite along the ferrite grain boundaries. Analysis of AM70 welds found acicular ferrite, martensite, and bainite structures. Mechanical testing for both materials found that the hardness of the material decreased with the increase in the height of the welded part as a result of the decrease in the temperature gradient and cooling rate. In addition, higher hardness and yield strength, and lower elongation at failure was observed for parts printed using process parameters with lower energy input. The findings from this work can support automated process parameter tuning to control thermal phenomena during welding and, in turn, control the microstructure and mechanical properties of printed parts. publishedVersion

Research on human health and safety impacts of wire arc additive manufacturing is often overshadowed by the need for weld quality and mechanical strength improvements. To address this gap, a review of research literature is conducted focusing on the influence of welding process parameters, welding fumes, and fume exposure on worker health. The review uses a causal graph to classify research literature into two domains: manufacturing technology and public health. The graph serves as a precursor to development of a Bayesian network model, whose expected benefits, steps for implementation, and likely challenges that would be encountered during implementation are discussed. publishedVersion

Recent advancements in information technology have enabled a paradigm shift in product manufacturing. Specifically, cloud-based distributed manufacturing has become a viable service for small and medium companies and prosumers, since it caters to the needs of these stakeholders. Distributed manufacturing offers significant benefits, including reduced cost, shorter lead time, and increased supply-chain flexibility. With interest in these services on the rise, however, there have not been substantial efforts to assess the sustainability performance of cloud-based distributed manufacturing. Sustainability assessment tools are not able to accommodate the unique attributes of cloud-based manufacturing, including broad geographic distribution, real-time autonomous customer support, and dynamic supply chains and processes driven by customer preferences. Thus, this research aims to develop an adaptive sustainability assessment framework for evaluating cloud-based distributed manufacturing systems using an integrated sustainability indicator for environmental, economic, and social impacts. The framework is demonstrated for distributed additive manufacturing as a service.

Additive manufacturing is rapidly emerging as an alternative to conventional manufacturing, including subtractive processes, often attributed to its claim for sustainable product development, e.g., reduced cost, reduced energy and material use, and the distributed production of tailored consumer products. However, many of these benefits remain unsubstantiated for large-scale production. The aim of the research herein is to identify the systemic contributors to environmental impacts for additive manufacturing using exergy analysis and life cycle impact assessment. These methods have been previously applied to evaluate the environmental performance of conventional and non-conventional manufacturing processes. Thus, they offer a validated approach to evaluate the environmental impacts of additive manufacturing with respect to systemic material and energy losses. In this study, the environmental impacts of direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) of iron metal powder is characterized by performing a thermodynamic analysis of the resources and energy utilized and lost from cradle-to-gate. It is found that only 6% of total process inputs in DMLS contribute to material processing, while 94% is lost as bulk waste, heat, and work. Life cycle impact assessments are performed to characterize the environmental impacts of these losses using single issue indicator (Global Warming Potential, GWP) and aggregate indicator (ReCiPe 2008) methods. The results show that electricity consumption is a key contributor to the focal process and its related upstream processes. The systemic GWP impact for DMLS was found to be 7.2 kg CO 2 equivalent. ReCiPe 2008 indicates damage to human health outweighs damage to ecosystem quality (E=84%, H=58%, I=51%) and resource availability (E=74%, H=29%, I=19%) for the DMLS process.

Increased competitiveness in the manufacturing industry demands optimizing performance at each level of an enterprise. Optimizing performance in terms of indicators such as manufacturing cost requires knowledge of cost-inducing variables from product design and manufacturing, and optimization of these variables. However, the number of variables that affect manufacturing cost is very high and optimizing all variables is time intensive and computationally difficult. Thus, it is important to identify and optimize select few variables that have high potential for inducing cost. Towards that goal, a dimension reduction method combining dimensional analysis conceptual modelling framework and graph centrality theory is proposed. The proposed method integrates existing knowledge of the cost inducing variables, their interactions, and input-output relationship for different functions or behavior of a system, in the form of a causal graph. Propagation of optimization objectives in the causal graph is checked to identify contradictory influences on the variables in the graph. Following the contradiction analysis, graph centrality theory is used to rank the different regions within the graph based on their relative importance to the optimization problem and to cluster the variables into two optimization groups namely, less important variables and most important variables relative to optimizing cost. The optimization problem is formulated to fix less important variables at their highest or lowest levels based on their interaction to cost and to optimize the more important variables to minimize cost. The proposed dimension reduction method is demonstrated for an optimization problem, to minimize the production cost of the bladder and key mechanism for a high-field superconducting magnet at CERN, capable of producing a 16 Tesla magnetic field. It was found that the graph region representing the electromagnetic force and resultant stress generated during energizing of the magnet ranked highest for influence on the bladder and key manufacturing cost. An optimization of the stress and its associated variables to minimize the manufacturing cost is performed using a genetic algorithm solver in Matlab.

Key performance indicators (KPIs) are used to monitor and improve production cost, quality, and time. A plethora of manufacturing KPIs are currently in use, with others continually being developed to meet organizational needs. However, obtaining the optimum KPI values at different organizational levels is challenging due to the complex interactions between manufacturing decisions, variables, and the desired targets. A Bayesian network is developed to characterize the interrelationships between manufacturing decisions and variables, selected KPI, and total production cost. For an additive manufacturing case, the approach enables appropriate KPI value estimation for achieving desired production cost targets in a manufacturing enterprise. publishedVersion

Implementation of additive manufacturing into product manufacturing suffers from the challenge of part defects prediction. Due to interdependencies of design variables and manufacturing parameters in achieving suitable part quality, modelling methods are necessary to provide simulation capabilities for part quality analysis at early stages of product development. A systematic methodology is proposed to extract cause-effect relationships among variables and to transform this causal model into a Bayesian network. The Bayesian network is then used to predict the effect of specific design and manufacturing parameters on part defects and to estimate the needed input parameters backwards, based on acceptable output values. publishedVersion

Additive manufacturing has been presented as a novel and competitive method to achieve unprecedented part shapes and material complexities. Though this holds true in niche markets, the economic viability of additive manufacturing for large-scale industrial production is still in question. Companies often struggle to justify their investment in additive manufacturing due to challenges in the integration of such technologies into mainstream production. First, most additive technologies exhibit a relatively low production rate when compared with traditional production processes. Second, there is a lack of robust design for additive manufacturing methods and tools that enable the leveraging of the attendant unique capabilities, including the ability to form organic part geometries and automated part consolidations. Third, there is a dearth of systematic part screening methods to evaluate manufacturability in additive manufacturing. To tackle the challenge of manufacturability evaluation, the present work proposes a novel approach derived from latent semantic analysis and dimensional analysis to evaluate parts and their production for a variety of selected metrics. The selected metrics serve as descriptors of design features and manufacturing functions, which are developed using functional modeling and dimensional analysis theory. Singular-value decomposition and Euclidean distance measurement techniques are used to determine the relative manufacturability for a set of parts for a specified manufacturing process technology. The utility of the method is demonstrated for laser powder bed fusion technology. While demonstrated for additive manufacturing here, the developed approach can be expanded for any given set of manufacturing processes. Expansion of this systemic manufacturability analysis method can support part design decision-making, process selection, and design and manufacturing optimization.