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Since last few decades, the extensive underutilization has been found in canal irrigation. This issue constitutes the serious lacuna in irrigational planning which often depicts the major problem about optimal water use. As per FAO Aquastat 2015 records for India, out of 91% of water utilized for agriculture purpose, 45% is getting lost under different types of conveyance losses from dam headworks till farms. The conveyance losses constitute the seepage and evaporation losses. Out of these, seepage is a quite significant loss in most of the water conveyance systems. Estimating conveyance losses using physical methods is quite difficult and involves lots of field work and calculations, whereas empirical and analytical methods will not accommodate site condition of respective study area. This study attempted to assess the conveyance loss of Dudhganga Right Bank Main canal with the help of a hydraulic model built on a spatial platform and verified with flow-monitoring events. The hydrospatial model was simulated to understand the canal behaviour and evaluate the conveyance losses. The results show Dudhganga Right Bank Main canal has average 39.96% water conveyance loss.

The River Chenab is one of the main western rivers of the Indus River system in Pakistan, which undergoes intensive inundation almost every year during the late monsoon period. The present study performs flood frequency analyses for the river basin as well as simulates different levels of water flow in the system to speculate all kinds of inundation under different scenarios, i.e., to predict flood hazard and flood extended areas. Flood frequency analyses were performed at MARALA Headworks to Khanki Headworks. Data were collected from the Punjab Irrigation Department, Pakistan and from USGS and ASTER GDEM. The peak discharge of MARALA Headworks had been analyzed for 25 years. The preprocessing was performed in HEC Geo-RAS after preprocessing model run in HEC-RAS. After analysis the data were exported in HEC-RAS to ARCMAP to generate a floodplain and inundation map. Our analysis generated the result that different areas would be under water in different return periods. Flood hazards maps for different return periods 10, 20, 50 and 100 years were conducted using annual peaks flow of 35 years from 1980 to 2016. The maximum discharges at up and down stream for different periods were obtained using Gumbel distribution model results which showed that different areas were predicted under water in different return periods and affected areas after five years’ return period.

This study was carried out to evaluate the impact of untreated urban and industrial effluents on water quality of river Ravi. Water samples were collected from 11 polluted and relatively unpolluted sites at river Ravi during low flow season and analyzed for heavy metals content and physico-chemical parameters. Dissolved oxygen fell below the recommended limit for propagation of fish and other aquatic life as the river flows through Lahore up to Balloki Headworks. Manganese and lead contents were higher than permissible limits for aquatic ecosystems at several polluted sites of the river. Highest concentration of nickel, zinc, manganese, cadmium and lead detected in river water was 20.0 µg/L, 70.0 µg/L, 190.0 µg/L, 2.0 µg/L and 72.0 µg/L respectively. Findings revealed that river water at downstream sites of wastewater carrying drains was not suitable to support fish and other aquatic life due to its very low dissolved oxygen level.

The British Government of India divided the Muslim majority province of Punjab into Eastern and Western Punjab. But the partition line was drawn in a manner that headworks remained in India and irrigated land in Pakistan. The partition of Punjab was not scheduled in the original plan of the division of India. Why was it partitioned? To answer this question, the study in the first instance tries to explore circumstances, reasons, and conspiracies which led to the partition of Punjab which led to the division of the canal irrigation system and secondly, the impact of partition on water resource management in the Indus River Basin. Descriptive, historical, and analytical methods of research have been used to draw a conclusion. The study highlights the mindset of Indian National Congress to cripple down the newly emerging state of Pakistan that became a root cause of the partition of Punjab. The paper also highlights why India stopped water flowing into Pakistan on 1st April 1948 and the analysis also covers details about the agreement of 4th May 1948 and its consequences for Pakistan.

In a Run-of-River (ROR) hydropower project with a low height diversion structure, sediment build-up in front of a side intake and removal of deposit are always a challenge. The design of sluice gates and intake layout is based on subjective expert knowledge and always involves rigorous discussion. The layout and design are popularly investigated and optimized through physical hydraulic model tests, but fine sediment transport cannot be modelled due to scaling issues. Numerical 3D hydraulic models are developed to cope with this and are gaining increased attentions due to high speed and low costs. This paper presents the utilization of a numerical hydraulic model for study of an intake layout considering the sediment transport. A case study of design of headworks of Kabeli-A Hydroelectric Project in Nepal is presented. Physical hydraulic modelling of the headworks was conducted to select an alternative solution and to optimize the design of intake layout for efficient handling of sediment build-up at the front of the intake. The investigation only conducted modelling of bed load transport and effects of the suspended sediments were assumed. The sediment transport modelling in front of the intake was performed using a 3D RANS model coupled with a sediment transport module. Three alternative layouts of intake were studied. The fine sediment build-up is modelled successfully, providing the duration for the bed to reach the intake invert and the sediment concentration passing through the intake. The results of the numerical model were found to be similar with the results of the physical model investigations. It is concluded that a numerical model can be used to study and select a best layout of intakes for efficient handling of fine sediments.

Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Plant (SSHP) is a run-of-river type project constructed in Sunkoshi River located in Sindhupalchowk District of Bagmati zone of Central Development Region, Nepal. The plant started its commercial operation since March 2005. During the year 2014, 2015 and 2016 the plant faced series of natural disaster events; landslide at Jure village on 2 August 2014, earthquake (7.8 magnitude) on 25 April 2015, landslide dammed flood in Sunkoshi River on 11 August 2015 and Glacier Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in Sunkoshi River on 5 July 2016. The Jure landslide created 55 m dam across Sunkoshi River. Thus created landslide dammed lake inundated the powerhouse of SSHP for 36 days. About seven million cubic meters of water was reserved in the lake. The event damaged entire powerhouse building, Electromechanical Equipment (EM), tailrace culvert, portion of steel penstock pipe and staff quarter. The rehabilitation works after Jure landslides included strengthening of powerhouse building and tailrace culvert, winding of generators, replacement of electromechanical equipment and portion of penstock pipe and change of transmission line alignment. On 25 April 2015, most of the rehabilitation works were completed. The EM experts were conducting a wet test for power generation when the power-plant was hit by other natural disaster - earthquake of 7.8 Rector Scale. The earthquake and its aftershocks followed by landslide dammed outburst flood of 11 August 2015 damaged headworks structures - formed a cavern of 56.6 m3 below gravel trap, collapsed entire powerhouse building and damaged newly installed electromechanical equipment, created several landslides along water way alignment and damaged about 900 m of penstock alignment. Some innovations in designs were introduced such as construction of sliding type saddle supports, bio-engineering combined with civil engineering structures to stabilize landslides, retrofitting of powerhouse building, use of crackamite and rock drill and avoidance of heavy masonry wall and gable wall in powerhouse. After rehabilitation works, the power plant re-operated since 4 January 2016 - after about 18 months. However, the plant was again affected by a Glacier Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in Botekoshi River on 5 July 2016.

The results of author’s method for evaluation of water levels (and discharges) instability as the function of time are described and new Environmental Classification of water headworks is proposed, based on water flow velocity criterium and application the “instability factors” for determination save water levels elevations (and outlet works discharge conveyance capacity), accepted for design and valid for the whole project life period. The classification is based on the assumption, that local channel processes and risks (biological, erosion, sedimentation, ice control and other”s) within the environment of hydraulic works will be eliminated or negative impacts limited. The main aim of applied classification is to protect the hydrauulic water-head structures from degradation, aggradation and deterioration. The general specification for design of discharge capacity of spillways and outlet works determination are given, as well as the main principle of the investments management. The general and particular technical requirements are specified for mitigation the negative impacts on the hydraulic headwater structures, as well as structures influences on the environment.. The scope of required changes in regulations and specifications are given to include in the present polish regulations and standards, including European EC7 Standard.

The supply of safe drinking water in rural developing areas is still a matter of concern, especially if surface water, shallow wells, and wells with non-watertight headworks are sources for drinking water. Continuously changing raw water conditions, flood and extreme rainfall events, anthropogenic pollution, and lacking electricity supply in developing regions require new and adapted solutions to treat and render water safe for distribution. This paper presents the findings of a pilot test conducted in Uttarakhand, India, where a river bank filtration (RBF) well was combined with a solar-driven and online-monitored electro-chlorination system, treating fecal-contaminated Ganga River water. While the RBF well provided nearly turbidity- and pathogen-free water as well as buffered fluctuations in source water qualities, the electro-chlorination system provided disinfection based on the inline conversion of chloride to hypochlorous acid. The conducted sampling campaigns provided complete disinfection (&gt, 6.7 log) and the adequate supply of residual disinfectant (0.27 &plusmn, 0.17 mg/L). The system could be further optimized to local conditions and allows the supply of microbial-safe water for river bound communities, even during monsoon periods and under the low natural chloride regimes typical for this region.

The SHAFDAN is the largest wastewater treatment plant in Israel and currently treats 360,000 m3/day of municipal wastewater, about 92% of its treatment capacity. Waste sludge from the plant is discharged to the Mediterranean Sea through a marine outfall. The SHAFDAN is committed to ending the disposal of its sludge to the sea by the end of 2016 by providing a land-based biosolids management program that produces a Class A biosolids for agricultural use. In order to implement this strategy, a number of large-scale construction projects were undertaken. These projects include a new sludge thickening and dewatering facility, updated headworks, a new primary treatment facility, and a new 3-stage thermophilic anaerobic digestion facility. The total capital cost of these projects is estimated to be US $300 million. This paper describes the principal components of these projects and their design parameters.

Large numbers of perennial rivers flowing through steep gradient has made Nepal an ideal place for hydropower development. Development of hydropower project in most economical way possible is the first prerequisite to get maximum benefit from harnessing water resources. The maximum benefit can be achieved only through optimal design of the project. Each project component must be designed considering the required level of factor of safety, performance standards of each component and economy. On this backdrop, this paper intends to optimize the location of cutoffs in headworks to get maximum benefits from use of it in terms of safety and economy. Improper placement of cutoff not only reduces the factor of safety against piping but also curtails the project benefits due to excessive seepage flow. Piping (internal erosion of soil particles under structure) is associated with high exit gradient. It threatens the structural stability and ultimately leads to failure of structure while as excessive seepage flow limits the availability of flow for power generation and reduces the project benefits. So, the optimal design of headworks is an attempt to identify the best location of cutoff to control seepage flow and reduce exit gradient. Five different cases representing different location of cutoff were analyzed and their roles in controlling seepage flow and reducing exit gradient was evaluated to optimize the cutoff location. 2D Finite Element Method (FEM) was used for the seepage analysis. The analysis showed that cutoffs are essential to control seepage flow when dam/weir is founded in pervious soil. However, the best location to place cutoff must be adroitly identified to reap maximum benefit from use of cutoff. The analysis reveals that the role of central cutoff in controlling seepage flow and reducing exit gradient is very limited. Likewise, the u/s cutoff has minimum effect in reducing exit gradient but the d/s cutoff seemed very effective in reducing exit gradient resulting increased factor of safety against piping. Hence, this paper concludes that the d/s end is the optimal location to place cutoff to improve safety and economy of the project. In addition, the use of both u/s and d/s cutoffs extend positive roles both in controlling seepage flow and reducing exit gradient. However, in author’s opinion the construction cost of two cutoffs must be compared with benefit added by use of two cutoffs over use of single d/s cutoff. HYDRO Nepal Journal Journal of Water Energy and Environment Issue: 21, July, 2017 Page: 42-44 Upload Date: July 18, 2017

This study aims to review previous studies and projects on hydropower generation using irrigation canals in Japan, and discusses their future perspectives. The Japanese agricultural sector uses around two thirds of the total water abstracted, which is channeled through dams, headworks, as well as 40,000 km of canal networks. Although such infrastructure would collectively have significant hydropower generation potential, it has attracted scant attention, due to the relatively low individual potential at each site. To effectively utilize such small and diffuse potentials, we would need to: (1) develop small waterwheels operable with small water heads and low flow rates; (2) develop techniques to identify suitable waterwheel sites within an existing canal system taking channel slopes and sidewall heights and seasonal variations in flow rates into consideration; (3) investigate the possibility of locally utilizing electricity on a micro-scale of a few kW, rather than selling it to the grid; and (4) modify the water management scheme where possible by, for instance, smoothing out flow rates across seasons and thus increasing the cost-effectiveness of power generation.

In Indonesia, water is public goods so it is necessary to control water allocation. Inequity of water allocation between water users is expanding largely, including irrigation as the largest user, while the density of headworks in the river are getting higher. Considering that water is limited, the practice of irrigation water allocation needs to be refined, from the traditional equity to volumetric equity. MEQAA (Model Equalisasi Alokasi Air/Equalization Model of Water Allocation) plays a role in determining water sharing between headworks in order to meet the maximum-equal K-factor in river. MEQAA-Generic is a calculation machine with: analog-deterministic dynamic model; network equation according to mass balance and linear optimization; independent-based system; sustainability-efficiency-equity constraints; Ms. Excel-VBA. The inputs are: scheme system, local inflow, and irrigation demand. The outputs are: K-factor, release and ecosystem quote. The model performance is identified by comparing the output to the class of K-factor based on treatment of water distribution. The model test is performed in an uncontrolled and complicated system in Kukusan Tanggek watershed with 24 headworks in Lombok river basin. As long as it is adequate for water sharing, MEQAA-G can always produce maximum-equal K-factor. The output model is used to operation control.

A recently completed $120-million headworks is helping Columbus, Ohio, make significant progress in reducing sewer overflows. The innovative facility includes what are believed to be the largest self-cleaning trench-type wet wells in the United States, selected because they reduce space requirements and costs, minimize odors and corrosion potential, and make the facility easier to operate and maintain.

This paper derives the efficiency price patterns for a comprehensive spatial and dynamic model of conjunctive water use incorporating conveyance losses, canal return flows, and groundwater recharge. The first-best shadow price of surface water is composed of a charge for water that flows into the farm and differential credits for water that flows to other uses. The shadow prices can be used as the basis of water pricing schemes or for exchange rates to facilitate water trading. We show that farmers near the headworks use irrigation water in the optimal program, and only farmers more distant from the headworks extract groundwater. We also illustrate the possibility of reswitching in the sequence of resource use. It may be efficient for some farms to switch from one source to another and then switch back again, e.g. groundwater to surface water to groundwater.

The Mekele Plateau, located in the semi-arid northern highland region of Ethiopia, is a drought-prone, highly degraded area. It has long been neglected by policymakers and thus recurring famine, widespread poverty, armed conflicts and mass outmigration have contributed to the near collapse of the farming systems and the livelihoods of the population. Traditional stream diversion irrigation has been practised in this area for several centuries. The systems of water management in particular may be considered inappropriate owing to the need for thriftiness in water use imposed by the local environment. The systems of headworks and canals are crude and wasteful on water. Recent interventions to improve the small-scale irrigation systems of the area have not been successful. Most interventions have preferred to introduce rainwater harvesting systems using micro-dams rather than trying to upgrade the traditional diversion schemes. Evaluation of irrigation structures in the field, interviews with key informants in government, analysis of documents and discussions with irrigators indicate that both the Ministry of Agriculture and SAERT-Commission's rainwater harvesting programmes have generally failed. The case of the most recent intervention by SAERT has failed because of myopic project planning, inadequate engineering studies, unsound designs, too short a time for implementation, and lack of full farmer involvement at different levels of project planning and implementation.

The ascending route of the fish and the flow characteristics at the wall were demonstratively carried out in the ice-harbor type fishway (width: 2.6m, drop: 0.15m, pool-length: 3.0m, gradient: 1/20) of Akaishi the number 2 headworks on the Akaishi River in Aomori Prefecture. It was found that the swimming fishes swum up rectilinear for the flow in lower layer division (which the velocity was about 200cm/s) of disturbing overflow on the notches at the wall in the fishway canal. On the other hand, it was found that on the orifices of the wall in the fishway canal the fishes swum through in the each basal plane corner part as well as on the orifices of the uppermost stream division wall.

The irrigation systems for the Red River Delta usually get water by pumping and gravity.The results determine the possible minimum water level line in the dry-season months under climate change scenarios (B2, SC5 and SC6 and current scenario is B2, SC4) on the river system of the Red River – Thai Binh River in study areas of project as below: Water levels on the Red River in the dry season under climate change scenarios significantly reduced compared with 2010. At Ha Noi station on Red River, the water levels reduce in 2050 about 6.5cm (B2) and 7.5cm (A2) and 6cm (B1). At Nam Dinh station on Dao River, the water levels reduce in 2050 about 4cm (B2) and 5cm (A2) and 3cm (B1). At Cat Khe on Thai Binh River, the water levels reduce in 2050 about 2cm (B2) and 3cm (A2) and 1.5cm (B1). At An Bai on Kinh Thay River, the water levels reduce in 2050 about 5cm (B2) and 6cm (A2) and 4cm (B1). At Truc Phuong on Ninh Co River, the water levels reduce in 2050 about 6.5cm (B2) and 7.2cm (A2) and 5.8cm (B1). In the scenario in which 50% of the socio-economic development plans are achieved (SC6), the water demand is lower than the scenario of full development (SC5). The decrease in the average water level in the whole Red River system is about 1.3-1.8 cm less than in SC5, and in Thai Binh river this figure is about 1.4-2.1cm. The lowering of the water level under climate change in the river has caused problems for irrigation during the dry season, in order to reach the target level in Hanoi.

[1] The issue of drought security is of paramount importance for cities located in regions subject to severe prolonged droughts. The prospect of “running out of water” for an extended period would threaten the very existence of the city. Managing drought security for an urban water supply is a complex task involving trade-offs between conflicting objectives. In this paper a multiobjective optimization approach for urban water resource planning and operation is developed to overcome practically significant shortcomings identified in previous work. A case study based on the headworks system for Sydney (Australia) demonstrates the approach and highlights the potentially serious shortcomings of Pareto optimal solutions conditioned on short climate records, incomplete decision spaces, and constraints to which system response is sensitive. Where high levels of drought security are required, optimal solutions conditioned on short climate records are flawed. Our approach addresses drought security explicitly by identifying approximate optimal solutions in which the system does not “run dry” in severe droughts with expected return periods up to a nominated (typically large) value. In addition, it is shown that failure to optimize the full mix of interacting operational and infrastructure decisions and to explore the trade-offs associated with sensitive constraints can lead to significantly more costly solutions.

A significant feature of Pakistan's agriculture is that it is served by the Indus irrigation system, which is one of the largest contiguous irrigation systems in the world. The system comprises of the Indus River and its tributaries, three major storage reservoirs, 19 barrages/headworks, 43 canals, and 12 link canals and 43 canals covering about 43,000 chaks or village settlements. The total length of the canal system is about 40,000 miles with over 80,000 water courses, field channels and ditches running for another million miles. About 100-106 million acre feet (MAP) of surface irrigation supplies are diverted annually into the canal system. Only 60 percent of this water reaches the farmgate due mainly to low efficiency in the delivery of water. The historical review of the area, production and yield trends shows that agricultural production in the past has increased mainly due to expansion in irrigated acreage while the contribution of changes in yields has been insignificant. In general, agricultural production can be increased by either expanding the irrigated cropped area or by raising the crop yields. It is highly unlikely that Pakistan will be able to satisfy the food needs of the rapidly increasing population through yield increases alone. This means that there ia a need to increase the irrigated cropped area through additional water supplies and by improving the efficiency of water use through using the water resources in a scientific manner. The possibilities of increasing irrigated area by developing more land and new surface water supplies in the short-run are limited as it requires huge capital

A water supply headworks simulation software package called WATHNET is described. It uses a simulation model based on a network linear programming formulation which makes the model independent of system configuration, avoids the need to define detailed operating rules, and allows simulation of systems changing over time. Particular emphasis is given to describing the user environment which consists of a portable, mouse-based graphics interface and the tools to which it provides access. This environment helps realize the potential of the model, providing tools which streamline the complex task of system definition and data preparation, and which present results in a readily comprehended form. A case study is used to illustrate significant features.

In the presence of conveyance losses, the efficient quantity of water applied falls with distance from the water source, but the amount of water "sent" (including conveyance losses) actually increases with distance from the source, except toward the tail end of the inigation system. This implies that if marginal cost pricing were implemented, farmers at the middle and lower reaches of the system would have to pay more money for less water received. The model is illustrated and alternative financing schemes compared for an empirically derived demand function for imgation water. Despite massive public investments in irrigation infrastructure, ex post evaluations of irrigation projects in developed and developing countries indicate that actual benefits are substantially below projected levels. Considerable evidence suggests that these low benefits are largely the result of poor on-farm water use efficiencies and rent-seeking activities that result from water charges that are low and often unrelated to water use (Chaudhry, Repetto, Bowen and Young). For example, farmers near the system headworks are said to consume a disproportionate share of irrigation water, while tail farmers are left with scanty and unreliable residual supplies (Reidinger, Wade). Many governments, faced with increasing political pressure to conserve water and reduce fiscal deficits are considering higher water charges to decrease waste and increase cost recovery from project beneficiaries. There is also increased awareness that low water charges and loosely enforced water rationing guidelines lead to environmental damages and excessive mining of groundwater resources. In general, the problems of water allocation and low user charges contribute to derivative problems in achieving efficiency, equity, fiscal stability, and environmental sustainability.

A brief review of recent developments in biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal technology is presented. Guidelines are outlined of how current understanding of these two removal mechanisms can be applied in the upgrading of existing wastewater treatment plants for biological nutrient removal. A case history dealing with the upgrading of the conventional activated sludge process located at Penticton, British Columbia, to a biological nutrient removal facility with a design flow of 18,200 m3/day (4.0 IMGD) is presented as a design example. Process components requiring major modification were the headworks, bioreactors and sludge handling facilities.

[1] Realistic optimization of the operation of urban water supply headworks systems requires that the issues of system complexity and stochasticity be addressed. A promising way of achieving this is to couple probabilistic search methods such as genetic algorithms (GAs) with Monte Carlo simulation models. However, the objective function surface, characteristic of this genre of problem, exhibits piecewise flat regions separated by steep slopes. The size of these flat regions is affected by the frequency of droughts sampled in the Monte Carlo simulation. Although an earlier study proposed a GA variant that appears to robustly negotiate such objective function surfaces, the assessment was limited to a simple one-reservoir system. There remains therefore a legitimate concern that for more complex systems the GA may converge prematurely producing decisions of little practical value. This study assesses the ability of the GA to optimize key operating rules for a complex urban headworks system with nine reservoirs and interbasin transfers subject to a highly variable climate. Eight decisions affecting restriction rules, pump marks, and contingent desalination were optimized using an objective function that minimized expected annual costs. It is shown that the GA produced results that are judged consistent with the strategy that minimizes total expected costs. In addition, the sensitivity of the GA results to the length of the Monte Carlo simulation was investigated.

Effectivness was evaluated of the Dryden Fish Screening Facility in the Wenatchee Reclamation District Canal near Dryden in north central Washington State. In situ tests were conducted by releasing groups of hatchery reared salmonids of different ages and sizes. Spring chinook salmon smolts (110-165 mm) were not injured or descaled in passing through the canal forebay. Smolts were not delayed as they migrated in the canal. Most fish released at the canal headworks exited the screening facility in 99% of the test fish captured in the fish bypass in

The Isle of Thanet in South East England is an important holiday area with a total summer population of 180,000 in the four seaside towns of Birchington, Margate, Broadstairs and Ramsgate. Sewage is discharged to sea through short sea outfalls causing pollution of local beaches. The feasibility study into possible solutions showed that marine treatment is generally the most cost effective solution for coastal towns and that local solutions were cheaper than area solutions due to the significant impact of transfer costs. The marine treatment schemes now being built provide preliminary treatment of fine screening and grit removal in enclosed headworks with high velocity, plug flow, operation of the outfalls. Special structures have been provided to protect the tapering manifold multi-port diffusers and to provide access to the outfalls. Installation of the outfalls was successfully achieved from difficult clifftop sites.

In 1982, the Government of Alberta began a program to rehabilitate and expand existing irrigation headworks systems within southern Alberta. Particular emphasis was placed on effectively minimizing future seepage from these canal systems. To fulfill this requirement, Alberta Environment undertook an extensive study of methods of seepage control that would be most appropriate for use in this program. The study concluded that the installation of a complete canal buried membrane lining was one of the most effective methods for controlling seepage. The geomembrane material selected for use as the buried liner for this installation was 0.5 mm (20 mil) thick polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This paper presents the basis on which the complete canal buried membrane lining system was selected, the reasons for selecting the 0.5 mm (20 mil) thick PVC as the lining material, the quality control program for monitoring the purchasing of the PVC material, and the installation procedures used for placing the membrane within the canal cross section. The design criteria and construction procedures relevant to the earth cover material being placed on the membrane liner are also presented. Key words: irrigation, canals, seepage, lining, geomembrane, performance.

The study area lies on the northern limb of the Mahabharat Synclinorium. It consists of the crystalline rocks of the Kathmandu Complex with underlying metasedimentary rocks of the Nawakot Comples, separated by the Main Central Thrust. The reservoir area of the project reveals the good site for the large storage capacity and seems feasible. The headworks site is fairly suitable for the dam structures. The intake canal, desander basin and the approach canal will be located on flat alluvium terrace. Common rock types along the headrace tunnel are slate, quartzite, phyllite, dolomite, dolomitic limestone and chlorite-schist. Generally rock belongs to poor to good class. The semi-underground powerhouse lies on gently dipping terrace deposits. The rock support recommended for the headrace tunnel is combination of local to systematic bolting and reinforced shotcrete as per requirements.

the outbreak of war in the autumn of 1939, and in anticipation of possible immediate and heavy air raids on the civil population of Great Britain, water authorities put into action plans for ensuring, as far as possible, the continuance of a safe and adequate water supply. Briefly, the problems of the authorities were: (1) to obtain rapid and accurate information of any damage ("incident") to mains and works; (2) to shut off, as soon as possible, any broken mains; (3) to minimize disturbance and loss of working time, through loss of pressure or water supply, and to provide drinking water; and (4) to repair the damage. These problems will be discussed in the following pages. In Great Britain, the general A.R.P. Service, under the control of the town clerk, or other authority establishes in each area a Central Control. At this center all reports concerning air raid incidents are received and sorted. Messages are sent in by police, air raid wardens, etc., reporting incidents on their patrols. A representative of the water authority attends at the center, or the water authority maintains a control center for its own use, and incidents concerning it are passed on from the Central Control. In many authorities the distribution section has been -the "Cinderella" of the service, but as heavy bombing is invariably on the cities and not on the outlying headworks, the distribution staff becomes vitally important. It follows therefore that its members should figure prominently in the control arrangements.

The irrigation infrastructures in Farmer’s Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS) of Nepal were mostly built from the local materials of mud, stone, and forest products with rudimentary traditional methods, practiced over many centuries. These systems are operated and maintained solely by the community farmers or an individual family. The Nepal Irrigation Sector Project (NISP), funded under the credit assistances of the World Bank, sponsored the modernization of these FMIS in the three western regions of Nepal from 1998 to 2004. The paper gives an account of the infrastructures built under the project to modernize the FMIS, and presents some facts about the impacts of the assistances to FMIS in relieving problems faced by farmers. The structures in the FMIS differ nominally according to the ecological region, due to the terrain and characteristics of the conveyance systems. In the hills, generally, lining and cross drainage structures are common; whereas, in the Terai, it is mostly the headworks structure due to lack of traditional materials as shrubs and forest products. The NISP assisted these FMIS with the participation of the users and their contribution in the civil works from seven to 15 percent. The users were involved in the design and construction of the infrastructures from the very initiation of the schemes. The project had good impacts on system performance and, thus, in agriculture production. Key words: FMIS; Irrigation; Participatory development; Water distribution; Modernization; Nepal DOI: 10.3126/hn.v6i0.4196 Hydro Nepal Journal of Water, Energy and Environment Vol. 6, January 2010 Page: 55-60 Uploaded Date: 24 January, 2011

This study focuses on suggesting short term corrective measures for improving water supply to Shimla city which is the state capital of Himachal Pradesh in India. The city is getting water supply from seven sources located in three watersheds, namely, Nauti, Ashwani and Giri watershed. Nauti and Ashwani watersheds have fully been tapped but Giri watershed is partly tapped. Presently, only 20 MLD (million litres per day) of water is being drawn from Giri River which is about 37% of the present water demand. Resource assessment in Giri watershed was accomplished using Remote Sensing Techniques and GIS based Arc-SWAT Hydrological Model. Study has established that average annual precipitation in the Giri watershed for 26 years (1984–2010) is about 1011.44 mm, out of which about 32% flows as runoff, 12% as groundwater and about 56% as evapotranspiration. The monthly inflow varies from 0.37 to 18.93 m 3 /s and 75% annual dependable discharge is 2.80 m 3 /s at the existing Headworks. Being ungauged watershed there are no statistical data for validation of results. However considering Water Balance Equation as the validation criteria, coefficient of correlation “ R ” between observed Rainfall and simulated Runoff was found to be 0.94 which validates the output. Results were further validated through actual measurement of inflow in lean period, which surprisingly has shown very good correlation ( R = 0.95) between simulated and observed stream flow. Model output further reveals that the excess inflow can be utilized to fulfill additional water demand of 42.61 MLD (2031) for Shimla city by creating storage of about 1.12 MCM (million cubic metres).

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[PI arts of South Sumatra that for several thousand years had carried the imprint of shifting cultivation had now undergone a drastic change involving complete removal of the second-growth forests; the leveling, bunding, and, where necessary, terracing of the land; and, finally, construction of irrigation works which included dams, water distribution headworks, and a system of canals.... A new feature of the landscape was the presence of large rice mills to handle the rich harvest of an area that had become in a relatively short time span a new rice granary capable of supporting some four hundred to five hundred persons per square kilometer....

T HE Columbia Basin Project, construction of which was begun in the early 1930'S, was designed to be the nation's largest single irrigation project and its prime example of planned land use. In 1939 the Commissioner of Reclamation initiated a four-year program that was to become known as the "Columbia Basin Joint Investigations."' These investigations were truly joint endeavors, since federal, state, and private agencies assisted the Bureau of Reclamation in its attempt to provide a sound plan for the settlement and development of the project area. Planning consultant for the Bureau and director of the joint investigations was Harlan H. Barrows, then chairman of the Department of Geography at the University of Chicago. Little more than a decade has elapsed since water was first brought to project lands, and already serious difficulties have been encountered. Development is virtually at a standstill, with less than half of the planned acreage under cultivation; and future growth is uncertain. Despite the best efforts of planners, unforeseen problems arise. In this project the problems are many and diverse. Any of them-for example, the provision of adequate drainage facilities at a reasonable cost, the size of farms, crop emphasis, or repayment of construction costs, to mention but a few-would be worthy of extended discussion. However, at a time when irrigation agriculture is undergoing ever-closer Congressional scrutiny, an overview of the Columbia Basin Project may indicate what future developments are to be expected in the field of reclamation. The project area (Fig. 1) is in the northwestern part of the Columbia Plateau. At the headworks of the project is Grand Coulee Dam (Fig. 2), key * The author is indebted to personnel of the Ephrata, Washington, Office of the Bureau of Reclamation for their help in providing information for his use. This article is part of a broader study of the Columbia Basin Project made during the period 1958-1961 when the author was an instructor in the Departnment of Geology-Geography, University of Idaho, and also a Ph.D. candidate in geography at