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Wing, tail and bill lengths of Hooded Vultures were measured on 36 wild-caught birds and 75 in museum collections. A further 60 measurements were taken from literature, and 40 measurements were received from the Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale (Tervuren, Belgium). By grouping them into regions of Africa it was shown that the smallest birds were in West Africa and the largest in southern Africa (which is well known), with a gradation in between. Sizes varied according to a cline, and were correlated with average altitude. Given that the species has the same colouration (head, caruncles, plumage) from one end of the range to the other, indeed that populations are contiguous from Senegal to South Africa, then this goes against recognising any subspecies, but rather an intraspecific trend in sizes

Groups of the Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus were observed pick feeding at small piles of boiled and crushed African Oil Palm Elaeis guineensis fruit at the south Gambian village of Marakissa (16.39044°N, 13.12055°W) on several occasions in the 1980s and 1990s. The vultures foraged alongside working women farmers (Barlow et al 1997). This remains the only published reference for this type of feeding habit based on direct observations. The utilisation of non-human harvested African Oil Palm E. guineensis fruit (also known as palm-nuts) as a food source by N. monachus has been described previously, derived from a road-killed bird collected on 22nd September 2003 in coastal Gambia that was found with a stomach containing 11 fresh whole fruits of E. guineensis (Barlow 2004). The intact fruits had not been boiled, crushed or seemingly processed by farmers in the small-scale village enterprise palm oil production process. Another complete N. monachus specimen found in a rice field 100 km inland on 9th February 2002 had five Oil Palm pits (all the fleshy mescocarp parts were missing and the seed is contained inside the pit, e.g. see Figure 3) in the desiccated remains (Barlow 2004). We have no reports from elsewhere of N. monachus feeding on Oil Palm fruit or the by-product since the 2004 report, and a photographic record of N. monachus foraging on Oil Palm fruit in the field remains sought after. In the context of other species, feeding on palm fruit by the Palm-nut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis is well documented (Bannerman 1930, Clark & Davies 2018), and three fruits were found in the stomach of a desiccated carcass of an adult African Harrier-Hawk Polyboirodes typus found in the Central River Region of Gambia, February 2005 (personal observation).

We present biometrical data assembled from a combined total of 37 complete and partially cleaned skulls and feathered heads for the two putative subspecies of Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus monachus and N. m. pileatus (which Mundy et al. (1992) credibly argue should be N. m. carunculatus). We report on mostly insignificant variation in measurements taken from across three regions of the Hooded Vulture range. For N. m. pileatus (n = 22) the measurements are assembled from 13 live birds captured, tagged and released in Botswana between 2014-2017, seven museum specimens held in The National Museums of Kenya collected during 1913-1950, and two as described below. We compare with N. m. monachus (n = 14) where we measured eight specimens produced by road traffic accidents in The Gambia 2002-2019 of which seven are cleaned bare skulls and one a feathered study skin. We also measured six feathered heads and three skulls from several different countries in Africa, collected during 1832-1929 (n = 6 monachus, 2 pileatus, and 1 unknown) and held at the Natural History Museum, Tring, UK. Cranial materials for Hooded Vulture are scarce in world museums and the Gambian sample consisting of seven cleaned skulls represents the largest known number for a single country. Different populations across the regions vary considerably in both feeding habits and home ranges. We hypothesised that different foraging ecologies may have led to adaptation in bill morphology. Presented here for the first time are a series of skull morphometrics which test for variation in cranial biometrics and bill morphology from across the range of the Hooded Vulture. The Gambian bird has been DNA sequenced and a planned genetics study of other populations will resolve the long-standing taxonomic debate.

The head−neck system of birds is a highly complex structure that performs a variety of demanding and competing tasks. Morphofunctional adaptations to feeding specializations have previously been identified in the head and neck, but performance is also influenced by other factors such as its phylogenetic history. In order to minimize the effects of this factor, we here analyzed the anatomy of three closely related vultures that distinctly differ in feeding strategy. Vultures, as obligate scavengers, have occupied a special ecological niche by exclusively feeding on carrion. However, competition among sympatric vultures led to ecological differences such as preference of certain types of food from a carcass. Via comparative dissections we systematically described the craniocervical anatomy in the Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), the Cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) and the Hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) that exploit the same food resources in different ways. Our results revealed differences in the number of cervical vertebrae, in the morphology of the atlas−axis complex as well as in the neck musculature despite overall similarities in the musculoskeletal system. Gulpers, rippers and scrappers adopt specific postures while feeding from a carcass, but the cervical vertebral column is indispensable to position the head during all kinds of behavior. The great range of demands may explain the conservation of the overall muscle topography of the neck across the studied taxa.

SummaryUnderstanding the attitude of people towards vultures, especially factors that influence behaviours that support their conservation, is crucial if the decline in vultures is to be slowed and reversed. Their vital ecosystem function in keeping the environment free of carcasses and reducing the spread of disease is not yet appreciated in Ghana. Little is known about the attitude of Ghanaians’ about vultures. Structured questionnaires and key informant surveys were employed with a sample size of 460 respondents randomly selected across Ghana. Over 85% of respondents were familiar with the Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus and vultures were culturally important to 56% of respondents. Diseases that affect livestock are claimed to be treated with chemicals such as diclofenac sodium to which vultures are highly susceptible globally and livestock carcasses were not available to vultures as 53% of respondents bury carcasses. A new poisoning pathway has emerged in which furadan is used to poison wildlife for bushmeat and the offal removed which is then consumed by vultures, as indicated by 78% of respondents. The majority of respondents positively thought vultures were important and must be protected. Poisoning, habitat loss particularly the loss of silk cotton tree Ceiba pentandra and trade in vulture parts for traditional medicine are major threats to vultures in Ghana. Continuous awareness creation, positive attitude towards the environment, vulture conservation programmes and protection of breeding sites were some urgent conservation actions recommended to ensure the survival of vultures.

The hooded vulture Necrosyrtes monachus is a critically endangered species and recently published evidence suggests that its population is experiencing an extremely rapid decline, owing to indiscriminate poisoning, trade for traditional medicine, hunting, persecution, electrocution, habitat loss and degradation. As a result of these threats, the species is gradually disappearing from its range and thus, the sighting of vultures or their nests is becoming very rare. This paper thus, presents a report on the sighting of the Hooded Vulture and its nest at Emi Abumo Woro Village, Kogi State, Nigeria. This is an evident and equally an indication that Emi Abumo Woro village harbours the remnant of this rare and critically endangered bird species. Materials and Methods: Two vultures and a nest were sighted on 3rd March, 2018, during a bird survey of the area. The nest was sighted on a Baobab tree Adansonia digitata, located in a fork on the main trunk, at a height above ground of 12.8 m. The nest was accessed using a ladder to determine its content. Results: The content of the nest were two eggs, which were photographed. On 17th March, 2018, when the nest was revisited, one of the eggs had disappeared and could not be accounted for. Fifteen other vultures were seen flying within the nest environment. The nest was revisited on 2nd April, 2018 and it was observed that the one remaining egg had been hatched and the vultures had disappeared to an unknown destination. The nest was a statant-cupped shaped nest of large size and the nest materials were mostly sticks and leaves of the nesting tree, which were used in lining the nest. Conclusion: This study reveals that the Hooded Vulture still exist in some parts of Nigeria and that Emi Abumo Woro village presents a good breeding site for this vulture. It is therefore very important to take some measures towards conserving the vulture and its breeding site.

Background and objective: African vultures are under pressure from various, well-known anthropogenic threats. Here we describe and aim to highlight a littleknown source of mortality to two Critically Endangered vulture species (Gyps africanus and Necrosyrtes monachus), as well as the Endangered Cape Vulture (Gyps copropheres) in southern Africa – that of captive big cats killing vultures that land in their enclosures to feed on food scraps or faeces or to bathe in drinking water. Methods: Personal observations, reports from public, interviews with current and former staff from predator parks and lion hunting ranches. Discussion: While the spatial and numerical extent of this mortality has not yet been quantified, if it is found to be widespread then failure to address it may present a risk to the regions’ vulture populations. Conclusion: We encourage captive breeding facilities and regulatory authorities to take appropriate action to prevent free-roaming vultures from coming into contact with captive big cats, and we highlight the need for further research to determine the spatial extent and magnitude of this threat to African vultures.

Avian scavengers, by feeding on carrion and other organic matter, provide critical ecosystem services. Vultures, the only obligate avian scavengers, have reportedly experienced massive population declines in Africa yet current knowledge regarding their status in most West African countries is unknown. This study set out to ascertain the status of the avian scavenger community in Edo State, southern Nigeria. We made total counts of all scavenging birds at foraging and roosting sites in 13 urban areas. We recorded three species of avian scavenger which were, in order of decreasing relative abundance, Pied Crow Corvus albus, Yellow-billed Kite Milvus migrans and Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus. There was a positive correlation between relative abundance of avian scavengers and human population size, such that more populous urban centres had larger populations of scavengers. We counted more scavenging birds at roosting sites than at foraging sites. While the Pied Crow and Yellow-billed Kite appear to be thriving in Edo State, the Hooded Vulture appears to have experienced a massive population decline. Our results suggest that without immediate conservation effort such as protection, education and advocacy, the Hooded Vulture will be extirpated from this region in the near future. We suggest that these conservation efforts be focused on the largest urban areas. Furthermore, we recommend that other states in southern Nigeria be urgently surveyed in order for more general conclusions to be drawn about the fate of avian scavengers in this region.

During the last decades, the critically endangered Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus has strongly declined across its African range. Although direct persecution has been suggested as a major cause of this decline, little is known about the impact of humans on reproductive output in West Africa. We studied the impact of human activities on the reproductive output of Hooded Vultures in the Garango area of Burkina Faso. Twenty and 56 nesting attempts were monitored, respectively, during the breeding season in 2013/14 and 2014/15, to determine reproductive success and identify causes of nest failure. Annual breeding success varied between 0.68 and 0.71 chicks fledged per breeding pair per year and productivity was assessed at 0.57 chicks fledged per territorial pair in 2014/15. The main threats imposed by humans were poaching of eggs, chicks and collection of nest materials, leading to 20% (13 out of 64 breeding attempts) of nest failures over the two years. An additional important reason for nest failure was the pruning and (partial) cutting of nest trees. Despite this high level of human interference, we found that Hooded Vulture nest success increased with proximity to human settlements, probably because breeding vultures benefit from protection by people against persecution and disturbance.Keywords: Burkina Faso, conservation, Hooded Vulture, human impact, reproduction

We report findings on the vulture trade in northern Nigeria, where it is commonly practised especially to supply the traditional medicine industry. We administered an open-ended questionnaire to 113 traditional, predominantly Hausa medicinal traders in 39 markets within eight states in northern Nigeria. Of the interviewed traders, 78% only had feathers of vultures on display in their stalls, 11% also offered vulture heads and 4.4% offered entire vultures; 40% of traders sold vultures for spiritual healing and 25% sold vultures for consumption. Forty-three percent of traders were supplied most often from vulture populations inside Nigeria and 48% were principally supplied from other countries in the region, as far west as Benin and east to Sudan. Increased prices for parts during the past 10 years reflected similar, or perhaps increasing, demand but lower availability of vultures. Hooded Vulture ( Necrosyrtes monachus ) was the commonest species traded with 90% of parts belonging to this species. Vultures sold in stalls had been killed using agricultural chemicals, shotguns, traps, and ground tobacco powder. Urgent and drastic conservation measures are needed to prevent further exploitation of critically endangered vultures in Nigeria and surrounding countries. Keywords: traditional medicine, vulture trade, northern Nigeria, conservation

Vultures constitute an important functional group in many ecosystems, providing crucial ecosystem services both in natural and humanized environments. These scavengers are facing massive declines worldwide, but in several African countries virtually nothing is known on populations' status and threats, hampering the development of adequate conservation strategies. In Guinea-Bissau, globally important populations of Hooded Necrosyrtes monachus and African white-backed vultures Gyps africanus were recently reported. Using the country as a study area, we aim to characterize human-vulture interactions in West Africa applying a multidisciplinary approach. We assessed the status and distribution of vulture populations using data from 1711 km of roadside transects, examined predictors of their distribution, and produced a nationwide population estimate for the Hooded Vulture, using an innovative method based on the relationship between the size of human population in settlements and vulture numbers. We conducted 47 stakeholder interviews to assess perceived roles played by vultures, and to investigate potential anthropogenic threats. Hooded vultures were strongly associated with high human population densities, whereas no relation was found between African white-backed and Rüppell's vultures and any of the tested predictors, which included cattle density, precipitation and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, among others. We estimate a national population of 43347 Hooded vultures, the largest population reported in the species range. Respondents were generally aware of the services provided by vultures, especially waste and carcass removal, including in urban areas. Hunting for witchcraft and traditional medicine was the most frequently recognised threat, while poisoning was ranked as having the highest impact. We hypothesise that poisoning-related mortality may be affecting African white-backed and Rüppell's vultures' distribution and explain their scarcity in apparently highly suitable habitats. Our results suggest a mutualistic rather than a commensalistic relationship between vultures and humans, with important implications for designing and implementing conservation strategies. Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT); Institute of Biodiversity and Protected Areas of Guinea-Bissau-IBAP; Rufford Foundation; Fondation MAVA info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Waste disposal sites are predominantly used as feeding sites for generalist birds. The main objective of this study was to assess the diversity and abundance of birds from three waste disposal sites in and around Gubre sub city, Guraghe zone in 2017. Data were collected using point count techniques from 6:00−10:00 a.m. in the morning and 4:00−6:00 p.m. in the afternoon for three consecutive days each in three study sites. During this study, a total of 2566 birds belonging to 17 species, 7 Families and 6 Orders were recorded. From the 17 identified species of birds, 11 species each were from site I and III, while the remaining 7 species were recorded from site II. Among the seven identified families, Accipitridae was numerically the dominant family represented with 7 species, while Columbidae and Scopidae were the least dominant families represented with 1 species each. At species level, Hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes manachus) was the most abundant bird species. The total abundance of birds was significant (ANOVA result, p=0.00) difference among the three sites. In general, highest number of individual birds were counted in site I (1210) followed by site III (974) and site II (382). A significant difference in the abundance of birds between morning and afternoon was also observed (t- test, p=0.044). Greater numbers of birds were counted in morning in all study sites (range: 93 in site II and 651 in site I). Site I was found to be with relatively higher value of species diversity (H’=1.2) than Site III (H’=1.01) and Site II (H’=0.90). In the study area, waste collectors, domestic dogs, cats and vehicles were considered as threats for waste dependent birds. More studies are required to make a complete list of available bird species in the study area.

Diurnal raptors have declined significantly in western Africa since the 1960s. To evaluate the impact of traditional medicine and bushmeat trade on raptors, we examined carcasses offered at markets at 67 sites (1–80 stands per site) in 12 countries in western Africa during 1990–2013. Black kite Milvus migrans and hooded vulture Necrosyrtes monachus together accounted for 41% of 2,646 carcasses comprising 52 species. Twenty-seven percent of carcasses were of species categorized as Near Threatened, Vulnerable or Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Common species were traded more frequently than rarer species, as were species with frequent scavenging behaviour (vs non-scavenging), generalist or savannah habitat use (vs forest), and an Afrotropical (vs Palearctic) breeding range. Large Afrotropical vultures were recorded in the highest absolute and relative numbers in Nigeria, whereas in Central Africa, palm-nut vultures Gypohierax angolensis were the most abundant vulture species. Estimates based on data extrapolation indicated that within West Africa 73% of carcasses were traded in Nigeria, 21% in Benin and 5% elsewhere. Offtake per annum in West Africa was estimated to be 975–1,462 hooded vultures, 356–534 palm-nut vultures, 188–282 Rüppell's griffons Gyps rueppellii, 154–231 African white-backed vultures Gyps africanus, 143–214 lappet-faced vultures Torgos tracheliotos, and 40–60 crowned eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus. This represents a sizeable proportion of regional populations, suggesting that trade is likely to be contributing significantly to declines. Stronger commitment is needed, especially by governments in Nigeria and Benin, to halt the trade in threatened raptors and prevent their extirpation.

Despite major declines in the population of vultures around the world, noticeable increases were reported in the populations of Hooded VulturesNecrosyrtes monachusover the past decade in Accra—an important vulture habitat in Ghana. In recent times, however, there is a growing concern that the vulture numbers are decreasing even though scientific data to support this is nonexisting. As a vital zoogeographical and conservation tool, it is important to keep an up-to-date knowledge about urban bird populations amidst rapid urbanization and associated changes. Using a combination of field data, literature review, and stakeholder consultations, it was indicative that severe decline might have indeed occurred in the populations of Hooded Vultures in Accra. Evidence suggests the killing of vultures for consumption, traditional medicine, and black magic in an undercover trade with possible transboundary connections as important underlying factor. Additional factors suspected to underlie the declines include changes in management of urban facilities and destruction of roosting and nesting trees. The implications of interspecific competition with Pied CrowsCorvus albuson Hooded Vultures however remain unclear. There is an urgent need for conservation campaign and education to save the Hooded Vulture in Ghana.

Avian scavengers are common and active in the social life of southern Ghana, yet few studies consider both the ecological factors for avian presence and the avian-human interactions from human gender and age perspectives, and compare avian behaviour in both human-dominated and natural landscapes. This paper examines interactions between people, hooded vultures and pied crows in Accra and Kumasi, Ghana using both ecological and social research methods. Land use was classified for species presence into meat and waste production, vegetable marketing, non-food production, residential and central business areas, green spaces and rural areas. One hundred and eighty-four people were interviewed, classified according to age and gender. Hooded vultures and pied crows were more common in urban than rural areas, and their presence was positively correlated with human numbers. Birds were most common in meat and waste production areas, but also foraged for street discards in non-food production and residential areas, and were most rare in rural areas. Bird consumption of waste was viewed positively, while eating of other foods, close proximity and unusual behaviours were viewed negatively. Both species, especially the larger vultures, were feared as spiritual agents, this measured by odd behaviours. Women and older people had stronger beliefs, due to cultural conditioning. These human perspectives and reactions influenced avian presence. This study contributes to urban avian ecology, socio-cultural studies and urban planning.

Genetic analysis of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1) viruses from poultry and hooded vultures in Burkina Faso shows that these viruses belong to 1 of 3 sublineages initially found in Nigeria and later in other African countries. Hooded vultures could potentially be vectors or sentinels of influenza subtype H5N1, as are cats and swans elsewhere.

The Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus is endemic to Africa and has recently been uplisted to Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Populations of Hooded Vulture in Kenya have declined significantly in recent decades and urban populations exist primarily in western Kenya towns where they typically forage at slaughterhouses and dumpsites. We surveyed seven western Kenyan towns and one neighbouring Ugandan market centre to assess the occurrence and threats to this species using opportunistic observations and interviews with employees at slaughterhouses and dumpsite facilities. We observed 23 Hooded Vultures, 20 in Bungoma Town and 3 in Busia-Uganda. Scavenging vultures were only observed at open-air slaughterhouses or dumpsites. We conducted 34 interviews at 14 facilities of which 23 interviews from six facilities were determined to be of good quality and used for subsequent analyses. At four of the facilities employees confirmed that Hooded Vulture numbers had declined and two respondents indicated declines had occurred from the year 2000 onwards. Possible reasons for declines mentioned by respondents were the introduction of closed-system of slaughterhouses, poisoning of stray dogs, cutting of roost trees, and increased competition for food. There was little evidence of exploitation of the birds for witchcraft or for food.

Previous surveys of scavengers in urban Kampala indicated an increase in the numbers of Hooded Vultures and a decline in the occurrence of other vulture species. This survey provides supporting evidence for this apparent trend with a total of 420–450 Hooded Vultures estimated as resident in urban Kampala and only one other species (Egyptian Vulture) recorded. Vulture News Vol. 53 2005: 10-14

So far overlooked as a pigment involved in visual communication, the haemoglobin contained in the blood of all birds is responsible for the red flushing colours in bare skin areas of some species. Our aim has been twofold: (1) to study sub-epidermical adaptations for blood circulation in two flushing species: the crested caracara (Polyborus plancus) and the hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus), and (2) to provide the first compilation of avian species with flushing skin. The bare facial skin of both the caracara and the hooded vulture contains a highly vascularised tissue under the epidermis that may be filled with blood and would thus produce red skin colours. In contrast, feathered areas of the head show very few vessels immersed in connective tissue and have no potential for colour changes. Species with flushing colours are few but phylogenetically diverse, as they belong to 12 different avian orders and at least 20 families. The majority are dark-coloured, large-sized species living in hot environments that may have originally evolved highly vascularised skin patches for thermoregulation. Bird behaviour as well as sex and age differences within species suggest that a signalling system for condition or status based on haemoglobin may have been super-imposed to the physiological process of heat dissipation. “Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions. Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming amount of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush” Charles Darwin. 1872. The expression of the emotions in man and animals, Chapter XIII. London, John Murray.

Mundy (1982, The comparative biology of southern African Vultures, Vulture Study Group, Johannesburg.) states that records exist for only 22 nests of the Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus in Rhodesia, of which he visited 15, while in only three nests were the eggs measured. He makes no specific mention of egg measurements from nests south of the Limpopo River, although the average of 10 "Southern African" eggs is given as 74,72 (Range 68,7 - 78,1) by 55,89 (Range 54,0 - 57,8) mm. Nevertheless, five South African breeding records exist, all from the Kruger.