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The diversity of fruits and frugivorous species is especially high in tropical regions where frugivory and seed dispersal interactions are particularly critical for the structure and functioning of terrestrial communities. However, the increasing urbanization in tropical areas has caused profound landscape changes, affecting species interactions and associated ecosystems functions. Here, we present an overview of the studies on frugivory and seed dispersal in tropical urban areas, discussing emergent patterns and processes underlying plant-frugivore interactions as well as major research gaps. Our review highlights an uneven geographical distribution of studies, which are more frequent in the Neotropics in comparison to Indomalayan and Afrotropical regions. We found that in tropical urban areas: (i) the most frequently studied group are flying frugivores (birds and bats), (ii) fruits of Myrtaceae, Moraceae, and Arecaceae are most frequently reported as consumed by frugivores, (iii) introduced plants are often present in frugivores’ diets, and become more common with urbanization, (iv) frugivores niche breadths vary with seasonality in fruit availability, (v) a higher diversity of fruits are consumed by frugivores in (or near) habitats that preserve more natural characteristics, such as higher proportion of green areas. Since suitable habitats within cities are highly variable in size, shape, connectivity, patterns of human activity, vegetation management and socioeconomic contexts, we recommend future studies to sample gradients in such variables. Furthermore, as new urban areas are often planned in advance, ‘before-after impact’ studies may be particularly insightful to understand how frugivores respond to urbanization and how to create frugivore-friendly areas without promoting undesirable (invasive) plants. Although the scarcity of studies and their geographical bias limit generalizations across distinct tropical regions, based on our review we provide a preliminary list of broad recommendations of management practices towards creating biodiversity-friendly urban areas.

Interaction network structure reflects the ecological mechanisms acting within biological communities, which are affected by environmental conditions. In tropical forests, higher precipitation usually increases fruit production, which may lead frugivores to increase specialization, resulting in more modular and less nested animal-plant networks. In these ecosystems, El Niño is a major driver of precipitation, but we still lack knowledge of how species interactions change under this influence. To understand bat-plant network structure during an extreme El Niño-Southern Oscillation event, we determined the links between plantivorous bat species and the plants they consume by DNA barcoding seeds and pulp in bat faeces. These interactions were recorded in the dry forest and rainforest of Costa Rica, during the dry and the wet seasons of an extreme El Niño year. From these we constructed seasonal and whole-year bat-plant networks and analysed their structures and dissimilarities. In general, networks had low nestedness, had high modularity, and were dominated by one large compartment which included most species and interactions. Contrary to our expectations, networks were less nested and more modular in drier conditions, both in the comparison between forest types and between seasons. We suggest that increased competition, when resources are scarce during drier seasons and habitats, lead to higher resource partitioning among bats and thus higher modularity. Moreover, we have found similar network structures between dry and rainforests during El Niño and non-El Niño years. Finally, most interaction dissimilarity among networks occurred due to interaction rewiring among species, potentially driven by seasonal changes in resource availability.

Encounters between flowers and invertebrates are key events for the functioning of tropical forests. Assessing the structure of networks composed by the interactions between those partners enables a better understanding of ecosystem functioning and the effects of environmental factors over ecological processes. Gathering such data is, however, costly and time-consuming, especially in the highly diverse tropics. We aimed to provide a comprehensive repository of the available flower-invertebrate interactions information for the Atlantic Forest, a South American tropical forest domain. Data were obtained from published works and "grey literature", such as theses and dissertations, as well as self-reports by co-authors. The data set has ~18 thousand interaction records forming 482 networks, each containing from 1 to 1,061 interaction links. Each network was sampled for about 200 hours or less, with few exceptions. A total of 641 plant genera within 136 different families and 39 orders were reported, with the most abundant and rich families being Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae. Invertebrates interacting with these plants were all arthropods from 10 orders, 129 families and 581 genera, comprising 2,419 morphotypes (including 988 named species). Hymenoptera was the most abundant and diverse order with at least six times more records than the second-ranked order (Lepidoptera). The complete data set shows Hymenoptera interacting with all plant orders, also depicting Diptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Hemiptera as important nodes. Among plants, Asterales and Fabales had the highest number of interactions. The best sampled environment was forest (~8,000 records), followed by pastures and crops. Savanna, grasslands and urban environments (among others) were also reported, indicating a wide range of approaches dedicated to collect flower-invertebrate data in the Atlantic Forest domain. Nevertheless, most reported data were from forest understory or lower strata, indicating a knowledge gap about flower-invertebrate interactions at the canopy. Also, access to remote regions is still a limitation, generating sampling bias across the geographical range of the Atlantic Forest. Future studies in these continuous and hard to access forested areas shall bring important new information regarding the interactions between flowers and invertebrates at the Atlantic Forest. There are no copyright restrictions on the data set. Please cite this data paper if the data are used in publications and teaching events.

Functional traits can determine pairwise species interactions, such as those between plants and pollinators. However, the effects of biogeography and evolutionary history on trait-matching and trait-mediated resource specialization remain poorly understood.We compiled a database of 93 mutualistic hummingbird-plant networks (including 181 hummingbird and 1,256 plant species), complemented by morphological measures of hummingbird bill and floral corolla length. We divided the hummingbirds into their principal clades and used knowledge on hummingbird biogeography to divide the networks into four biogeographical regions: Lowland South America, Andes, North & Central America, and the Caribbean islands. We then tested: (a) whether hummingbird clades and biogeographical regions differ in hummingbird bill length, corolla length of visited flowers and resource specialization, and (b) whether hummingbirds' bill length correlates with the corolla length of their food plants and with their level of resource specialization.Hummingbird clades dominated by long-billed species generally visited longer flowers and were the most exclusive in their resource use. Bill and corolla length and the degree of resource specialization were similar across mainland regions, but the Caribbean islands had shorter flowers and hummingbirds with more generalized interaction niches. Bill and corolla length correlated in all regions and most clades, that is, trait-matching was a recurrent phenomenon in hummingbird-plant associations. In contrast, bill length did not generally mediate resource specialization, as bill length was only weakly correlated with resource specialization within one hummingbird clade (Brilliants) and in the regions of Lowland South America and the Andes in which plants and hummingbirds have a long co-evolutionary history. Supplementary analyses including bill curvature confirmed that bill morphology (length and curvature) does not in general predict resource specialization.These results demonstrate how biogeographical and evolutionary histories can modulate the effects of functional traits on species interactions, and that traits better predict functional groups of interaction partners (i.e. trait-matching) than resource specialization. These findings reveal that functional traits have great potential, but also key limitations, as a tool for developing more mechanistic approaches in community ecology.A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Made available in DSpace on 2020-12-12T02:34:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2020-06-01 Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) Anthropogenic activities are the main cause of habitat loss and fragmentation, which directly affects biodiversity. Disruption in landscape connectivity among populations may affect complex interactions between species and ecosystem functions, such as pollination and seed dispersal, and ultimately result in secondary extinctions. Urbanization, one of the most intense forms of landscapes changes, has been reported to negatively affect bird and plant diversity. Still, little is known about the effects of urban landscapes on interaction networks. We investigated the relationship between urban landscape structure and plant-frugivore networks at different spatial scales. Coupling interaction data from urban areas and a model selection approach, we evaluated which landscape factors best explained the variation in urban networks properties. Our results indicate that urbanization decreases bird richness, mainly through the loss of habitat specialist species, which results in networks being composed mainly of birds well adapted to urban dwelling. We found that interaction evenness, a measure of homogeneity of interaction distribution between species, increases with urbanization. This is due to the strong dominance that generalist birds had in network composition because they foraged on all available fruits, including exotic plants. The ensuing homogenization of interactions can reduce the resilience of networks and affect the efficiency of ecosystems functions. Thus, urbanization plans should consider the proportion and distribution of green areas within cities, coupling human and ecosystem wellbeing. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação Universidade Federal do Paraná. Centro Politécnico Jardim das Américas Laboratório de Interações & Biologia Reprodutiva Universidade Federal do Paraná. Centro Politécnico Jardim das Américas Departamento de Biologia Faculdade de filosofia ciências e letras de Ribeirão Preto Universidade de São Paulo FFCLRP-USP Ribeirão Preto Universidad de Buenos Aires Facultad de Agronomía Cátedra de Botánica General Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) Laboratório de Ecologia Vegetal Universidade Federal do Paraná. Centro Politécnico Jardim das Américas Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Florestais Universidade Federal do Paraná. Jardim Botânico Laboratório de Ecologia Espacial e Conservação (LEEC) Departamento de Ecologia. Universidade Estadual Paulista UNESP Laboratório de Ecologia Espacial e Conservação (LEEC) Departamento de Ecologia. Universidade Estadual Paulista UNESP CNPq: 309453/2013-5 CNPq: 313801/2017-7 CNPq: 445405/2014-7

Human demands on resources such as food and energy are increasing through time while global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss are becoming more complex to overcome, as well as more widely acknowledged by societies and governments. Reports from initiatives like the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) have demanded quick and reliable access to high-quality spatial and temporal data of species occurrences, their interspecific relations and the effects of the environment on biotic interactions. Mapping species interactions is crucial to understanding and conserving ecosystem functioning and all the services it can provide (Tylianakis et al. 2010, Slade et al. 2017). Detailed data has the potential to improve our knowledge about ecological and evolutionary processes guided by interspecific interactions, as well as to assist in planning and decision making for biodiversity conservation and restoration (Menz et al. 2011). Although a great effort has been made to successfully standardize and aggregate species occurrence data, a formal standard to support biotic interaction data sharing and interoperability is still lacking. There are different biological interactions that can be studied, such as predator-prey, host-parasite and pollinator-plant and there is a variety of data practices and data representation procedures that can be used. Plant-pollinator interactions are recognized in many sources from the scientific literature (Abrol 2012, Ollerton 2021) for the importance of ecosystem functioning and sustainable agriculture. Primary data about pollination are becoming increasingly available online and can be accessed from a great number of data repositories. While a vast quantity of data on interactions, and on pollination in particular, is available, data are not integrated among sources, largely because of a lack of appropriate standards. We present a vocabulary of terms for sharing plant-pollinator interactions using one of the existing extensions to the Darwin Core standard (Wieczorek et al. 2012). In particular, the vocabulary is meant to be used for the term measurementType of the Extended Measurement Or Facts extension. The vocabulary was developed by a community of specialists in pollination biology and information science, including members of the TDWG Biological Interaction Data Interest Group, during almost four years of collaborative work. The vocabulary introduces 40 new terms, comprising many aspects of plant-pollinator interactions, and can be used to capture information produced by studies with different approaches and scales. The plant-pollinator interactions vocabulary is mainly a set of terms that can be both understood by people or interpreted by machines. The plant-pollinator vocabulary is composed of a defining a set of terms and descriptive documents explaining how the vocabulary is to be used. The terms in the vocabulary are divided into six categories: Animal, Plants, Flower, Interaction, Reproductive Success and Nectar Dynamics. The categories are not formally part of the vocabulary, they are used only to organize the vocabulary and to facilitate understanding by humans. We expect that the plant-pollinator vocabulary will contribute to data aggregation from a variety of sources worldwide at higher levels than we have experienced, significantly amplify plant-pollinator data availability for global synthesis, and contribute to knowledge in conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

Fil: Bergamo, Pedro J. Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden. Brasil. Fil: Wolowski, Marina. Federal University of Alfenas. Institute of Natural Sciences. Brasil. Fil: Tambosi, Leandro R. Federal University of ABC. Brasil. Fil: Garcia, Edenise. The Nature Conservancy Brasil. Instituto de Conservação Ambiental. Brasil. Fil: Agostini, Kayna. Federal University of São Carlos. Brasil. Fil: Garibaldi, Lucas A. Universidad Nacional de Río Negro. Instituto de Investigaciones en Recursos Naturales, Agroecología y Desarrollo Rural. Río Negro, Argentina. Fil: Garibaldi, Lucas A. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina. Instituto de Investigaciones en Recursos Naturales, Agroecología y Desarrollo Rural. Río Negro, Argentina. Fil: Knight, Tiffany M. Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research. Alemania. Fil: Nic Lughadha, Eimear. Royal Botanic Gardens. Reino Unido. Fil: Oliveira, Paulo E. A. M. Universidade Federal de Uberlândia. Brasil. Fil: Marques, Marcia C. M. Universidade Federal do Paraná. Brasil. Fil: Maruyama, Pietro K. Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Brasil. Fil: Maués Márcia M. Embrapa. Brasil. Fil: Oppata, Alberto K. Cooperativa Agrícola Mista de Tomé- Açu. Brasil. Fil: Rech, André R. Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri. Brasil. Fil: Saraiva, Antônio M. Universidade de São Paulo. Brasil. Fil: Silva, Felipe D. S. Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden. Brasil. Fil: Sousa, Gizele. Cooperativa Agrícola Mista de Tomé- Açu. Brasil. Fil: Tsukahara, Rodrigo Y. Fundação ABC Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Agropecuário. Brasil. Fil: Varassin, Isabela G. Universidade Federal do Paraná. Brasil. Fil: Viana, Blandina F. Universidade Federal da Bahia. Brasil. Fil: Freitas, Leandro. Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden. Brasil. Crop pollination is one of Nature’s Contributions to People (NCP) that reconciles biodiversity conservation and agricultural production. NCP benefits vary across space, including among distinct political-administrative levels within nations. Moreover, initiatives to restore ecosystems may enhance NCP provision, such as crop pollination delivered by native pollinators. We mapped crop pollination demand (PD), diversity of pollinator-dependent crops, and vegetation deficit (VD) (vis-a-vis Brazilian legal requirements) across all 5570 municipalities in Brazil. Pollinator-dependent crops represented ∼55% of the annual monetary value of agricultural production and ∼15% of the annual crop production. Municipalities with greater crop PD (i.e., higher degree of pollinator dependence of crop production) also had greater VD, associated with large properties and monocultures. In contrast, municipalities with a greater diversity of pollinator-dependent crops and predominantly small properties presented a smaller VD. Our results support that ecological restoration prompted by legal requirements offers great potential to promote crop productivity in larger properties. Moreover, conservation of vegetation remnants could support food security in small properties. We provided the first steps to identify spatial patterns linking biodiversity conservation and pollination service. Using Brazilian legal requirements as an example, we show that land-use management policies may be successfully used to ensure agricultural sustainability and crop production.

Individual behavior and local context are processes that can influence the structure and evolution of ecological interactions. In trophic interactions, consumers can increase their fitness by actively choosing resources that enhance their chances of exploring them successfully. Upon searching for potential resources, they are able to decide which one to choose according to their fitness benefit and maneuverability. Mathematical modeling is often employed in theoretical studies to understand the coevolutionary dynamics between these species. However, they often disregard the individual consumer behavior since the complexity of these systems usually requires simplifying assumptions about interaction details. Using an individual-based model, we model a community of several species that interact antagonistically. The trait of each individual is modeled explicitly and is subjected to the interaction pressure. In addition, consumers can actively choose the resources that guarantee greater fitness. We show that active consumer choice can generate coevolutionary units over time. It means that the traits of both consumers and resources converge into multiple groups with similar traits, exerting reciprocal selective pressure between them. We also observed that network structure has a greater dependence on the parameter that delimits active consumer choice than on the intensity of selective pressure. Consequently, this parameter can closely match empirical networks. Thus, we consider that the inclusion of consumers’ active choice behavior in the models plays an important role in the ecological and evolutionary processes that structure these communities.

Backgrounds and AimsTropical plant species are already suffering the effects of climate change and projections warn of even greater changes in the following decades. Of particular concern are alterations in flowering phenology, given that it is considered a fitness trait, part of plant species ecological niche, with potential cascade effects in plant–pollinator interactions. The aim of the study was to assess the potential impacts of climate change on the geographical distribution and flowering phenology of hummingbird-pollinated plants.MethodsWe implemented ecological niche modelling (ENM) to investigate the potential impacts of different climate change scenarios on the geographical distribution and flowering phenology of 62 hummingbird-pollinated plant species in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.Key ResultsDistribution models indicate future changes in the climatic suitability of their current habitats, suggesting a tendency towards discontinuity, reduction and spatial displacement. Flowering models indicate that climate can influence species phenology in different ways: some species may experience increased flowering suitability whereas others may suffer decreased suitability.ConclusionsOur results suggest that hummingbird-pollinated species are prone to changes in their geographical distribution and flowering under different climate scenarios. Such variation may impact the community structure of ecological networks and reproductive success of tropical plants in the near future.

O estabelecimento das interacoes planta-polinizador e de grande importância para o funcionamento dos ecossistemas. Estas interacoes podem ser registradas diretamente, por observacao focal, ou indiretamente, pela carga polinica presente no corpo do polinizador. Assim, a avaliacao da especializacao e da dependencia de parceiros mutualisticos, propriedades que podem ser estudadas por meio de redes complexas, depende do metodo empregado no registro das interacoes. O principal objetivo deste estudo foi comparar uma rede de visitacao floral e uma rede de transporte de polen construidas a partir de interacoes entre plantas e abelhas amostradas em 16 parcelas em estagios iniciais de sucessao ecologica na Floresta Atlântica, em Antonina, Parana, sul do Brasil. O registro das interacoes foi realizado inicialmente por observacao focal, e posteriormente foram amostrados os graos de polen aderidos ao corpo de seis especies de abelha, ficando as duas redes restritas as interacoes realizadas por estas seis especies. A rede de transporte de polen foi subdividida em uma rede de alimentacao, utilizando apenas o polen aderido as corbiculas ou escopas das abelhas, e uma rede de polinizacao, com o polen presente no corpo, exceto pernas, das abelhas. Estas redes foram comparadas em relacao ao grau ( k ), ao indice de especializacao ( d’ ) e a forca das especies ( F ), por meio de testes t pareados. A rede de transporte de polen apresentou maior numero de interacoes, maior k , menor d’ e maior numero de especies de planta que a rede de visitacao floral. Nao houve variacao da F. As redes de alimentacao e de polinizacao apresentaram propriedades semelhantes. A analise polinica revelou que as abelhas tendem a realizar turnos de forrageio exclusivos em flores de polen. As interacoes adicionadas a partir da analise polinica resultaram em diferencas nas metricas avaliadas e complementaram o registro das interacoes observadas na comunidade. Portanto, a informacao associada de ambos os tipos de redes pode ampliar a compreensao das interacoes, aproximando-se, dessa forma, a descricao da rede real. FLORAL VISITATION NETWORK VERSUS POLLEN-TRANSPORT NETWORK BETWEEN BEES AND FLOWERS IN THE ATLANTIC FOREST IN SOUTH BRAZIL . The establishment of plant-pollinator interactions is of great importance for the functioning of ecosystems. These interactions can be recorded directly, by focal observation, or indirectly, by the pollen load on the pollinator body. Thus, the evaluation of the specialization and dependence of mutualistic partners, properties that can be assessed through complex networks, depends on the method used for interaction record. The main objective of this study was to compare a floral-visitation network and a pollen-transport network constructed from interactions between plants and bees sampled in 16 plots in early successional areas in the Atlantic Forest, in Antonina, Parana, southern Brazil. We initially recorded these interactions by focal observation and we sampled the pollen grains on the bees’ body of six bees, and the two networks were restricted to the interactions of these six species. We subdivided the pollen-transport network into a feeding-pollen network, using only the pollen adhered to the bees' corbicules or scopes, and a pollination network, with the pollen present on the bees’ body, except the legs. These networks were compared in relation to the degree ( k ), the specialization index ( d ') and species strength ( F ), through paired t -tests. The pollen-transport network showed a higher number of interactions, higher k , lower d ' and a greater number of plant species than the floral visitation network. There was no variation in F . The feeding- and pollination networks presented similar properties. Pollen analysis revealed that bees tend to perform exclusive foraging flights on pollen flowers. The interactions added from the pollen analysis resulted in differences in the metrics evaluated and complemented the record of the interactions observed in the community. Therefore, the associated information of both types of networks can broaden the understanding of the interactions, thus approaching the actual network description.

Flowering plant species and their nectar-feeding vertebrates exemplify some of the most remarkable biotic interactions in the Neotropics. In the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, several species of birds (especially hummingbirds), bats, and non-flying mammals, as well as one lizard feed on nectar, often act as pollinators and contribute to seed output of flowering plants. We present a dataset containing information on flowering plants visited by nectar-feeding vertebrates and sampled at 166 localities in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. This dataset provides information on 1902 unique interactions among 515 species of flowering plants and 129 species of potential vertebrate pollinators and the patterns of species diversity across latitudes. All plant-vertebrate interactions compiled were recorded through direct observations of visits, and no inferences of pollinators based on floral syndromes were included. We also provide information on the most common plant traits used to understand the interactions between flowers and nectar-feeding vertebrates: plant growth form, corolla length, rate of nectar production per hour in bagged flowers, nectar concentration, flower color and shape, time of anthesis, presence or absence of perceptible fragrance by human, and flowering phenology as well as the plant's threat status by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classification. For the vertebrates, status of threat by IUCN classification, body mass, bill or rostrum size are provided. Information on the frequency of visits and pollen deposition on the vertebrate's body is provided from the original source when available. The highest number of unique interactions is recorded for birds (1771) followed by bats (110). For plants, Bromeliaceae contains the highest number of unique interactions (606), followed by Fabaceae (242) and Gesneriaceae (104). It is evident that there was geographical bias of the studies throughout the southeast of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and that most effort was directed to flower-hummingbird interactions. However, it reflects a worldwide tendency of more plants interacting with birds compared with other vertebrate species. The lack of similar protocols among studies to collect basic data limits the comparisons among areas and generalizations. Nevertheless, this dataset represents a notable effort to organize and highlight the importance of vertebrate pollinators in this hotspot of biodiversity on Earth and represents the data currently available. No copyright or proprietary restrictions are associated with the use of this data set. Please cite this data paper when the data are used in publications or scientific events.

Made available in DSpace on 2019-10-06T16:16:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2019-02-01 Epiphytes are hyper-diverse and one of the frequently undervalued life forms in plant surveys and biodiversity inventories. Epiphytes of the Atlantic Forest, one of the most endangered ecosystems in the world, have high endemism and radiated recently in the Pliocene. We aimed to (1) compile an extensive Atlantic Forest data set on vascular, non-vascular plants (including hemiepiphytes), and lichen epiphyte species occurrence and abundance; (2) describe the epiphyte distribution in the Atlantic Forest, in order to indicate future sampling efforts. Our work presents the first epiphyte data set with information on abundance and occurrence of epiphyte phorophyte species. All data compiled here come from three main sources provided by the authors: published sources (comprising peer-reviewed articles, books, and theses), unpublished data, and herbarium data. We compiled a data set composed of 2,095 species, from 89,270 holo/hemiepiphyte records, in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, recorded from 1824 to early 2018. Most of the records were from qualitative data (occurrence only, 88%), well distributed throughout the Atlantic Forest. For quantitative records, the most common sampling method was individual trees (71%), followed by plot sampling (19%), and transect sampling (10%). Angiosperms (81%) were the most frequently registered group, and Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae were the families with the greatest number of records (27,272 and 21,945, respectively). Ferns and Lycophytes presented fewer records than Angiosperms, and Polypodiaceae were the most recorded family, and more concentrated in the Southern and Southeastern regions. Data on non-vascular plants and lichens were scarce, with a few disjunct records concentrated in the Northeastern region of the Atlantic Forest. For all non-vascular plant records, Lejeuneaceae, a family of liverworts, was the most recorded family. We hope that our effort to organize scattered epiphyte data help advance the knowledge of epiphyte ecology, as well as our understanding of macroecological and biogeographical patterns in the Atlantic Forest. No copyright restrictions are associated with the data set. Please cite this Ecology Data Paper if the data are used in publication and teaching events. Instituto de Ciências da Natureza Universidade Federal de Alfenas (UNIFAL), Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, 700 Departamento de Botânica Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Rua José Lourenço Kelmer, S/n - Martelos Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro, Rua Pacheco Leão, 915 Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUC-PR), Escola de Ciências da Vida, Rua Imaculada Conceição, 1155 Departamento de Ciências Biológicas Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado Km 16 Departamento de Botânica Centro Politécnico Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Caixa Postal 19031, Jardim das Américas Instituto de Florestas Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ), Rodovia BR-465, Km 07 Centro de Ciências Biológicas Departamento de. Botânica Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Campus Reitor João David Ferreira Lima, s/n - Trindade Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), Campus Experimental de Registro, Av. Nelson Brihi Badur, 430 Universidade de Mogi das Cruzes (UMC) Núcleo de Ciências Ambientais, Avenida Doutor Cândido Xavier de Almeida e Souza, 200 Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), Praça Infante Dom Henrique, São Vicente Prefeitura Municipal de Olaria, Meio Ambiente, Praça 1° de Março 13, Centro Instituto Federal de Educação Ciência e Tecnologia Baiano (IF-Baiano), Campus Itaberaba, Av. Rio Branco, 1003, Centro Universidade Regional de Blumenau (FURB), Rua Antônio da Veiga, 140 Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia (UFRB) CCAAB, Rua Rui Barbosa, 710 Instituto de Biociências Cidade Universitária Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) Departamento Biociências (DBCI) Universidade Federal de Sergipe (UFS), Campus Universitário Prof. Alberto Carvalho,Av. Vereador Olímpio Grande, S/N - Bloco D, Centro Floresce Consultoria Ambiental, Rua Dr. Alexandre Gutierrez, 332 Departamento de Ecologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), CP. 199 Ciências Naturais Departamento de Ciências Naturais UESB Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia (UESB), Estrada do Bem-Querer km 4, s.n., Bairro Universitário Centro de Ensino Superior em Juiz de Fora (CESJF), Campus Arnaldo Janssen, Luz Interior, 345, Santa Luzia Instituto de Botânica de São Paulo Núcleo de Pesquisas Orquidário do Estado, Avenida Miguel Stefano Faculdade de Engenharia Arquitetura e Urbanismo e Geografia Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Caixa Postal 594, 79070-900, Cidade Universitária Departamento de Genética Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500 pr 43312 JB Consultoria Ambiental, Rua Joaquim Firmino, 1318 Departamento de Ciências Florestais Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Avenida Prefeito Lothário Meissner, 632 Instituto Nacional de Pesquisa da Amazônia (INPA) PPG-Botânica, Av. André Araújo, 2936, Aleixo Empresa Brazileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA) Florestas, Estrada da Ribeira, Km 111 Departamento de Ciências Florestais Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz” (ESALQ) Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Avenida Pádua Dias 11 Instituto de Ciências Biológicas Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), Campus I, Bairro São José, BR 285 Departamento de Botânica Instituto de Biociências Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Rua do Matão, 277 Instituto de Biociências Herbário CGMS Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Avenida Costa e Silva s/n Instituto de Ecología Regional (UNT-CONICET), Casilla de Correo, 34, Yerba Buena Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde - Rodovia Washington Luís Universidade Federal de São Carlos (UFSCAR), Km 335 - SP 310, 13565-905/C.P 676 Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), CP. 199 Departamento de Botânica Instituto de Biociências Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), Avenida 24 A, 1515, CP. 199 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Ambientais Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense (UNESC), Avenida Universitária, 1105, Bairro Universitário Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco (UNIFASF) NEMA, Brazil 407, Km 12, lote 543, Projeto de Irrigação Nilo Coelho, s/n Departamento de Biologia Vegetal Instituto de Biologia Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), C. P. 6109 Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Museu Nacional, Horto Botânico, Quinta da Boa Vista, São Cristóvão Laboratory of Palynostratigraphy and Paleobotany CICyTTP (CONICET-Entre Ríos-UADER), Dr. Matteri y España Diamante Departamento de Ecologia Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Rua São Francisco Xavier, 524 Ministério do Planejamento Desenvolvimentos e Gestão Esplanada dos Ministérios, Bloco K, Sala 352 Departamento de Biologia Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Campus de Ribeirão Preto, Avenida Bandeirantes, 3900 Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação, Cidade Universitária Departamento de Biodiversidade Evolução e Meio Ambiente Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto (UFOP), Campus, Universitário Morro do Cruzeiro Departamento de Ecologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN) Departamento de Ciências Biológicas Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Rodovia Jorge Amado Km 16 Laboratório de Ciências Ambientais Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF), Avenida Alberto Lamego 2000, Parque Califórnia, 28013602 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas Universidade Vila Velha (UVV), Rua Comissário José Dantas de Melo, s/n, Boa Vista Laboratório de Ecologia Comportamental e Ornitologia Departamento de Zoologia Centro Politécnico Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Caixa Postal 19031, Jardim das Américas Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuária de Clima Temperado (Embrapa Clima Temperado), Rodovia BR-392, Km 78, 9° Distrito, Postal Code 403 Instituto de Humanidades Artes e Ciências and Herbário Centro de Pesquisa do Cacau - CEPEC Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia (UFSB), Campus Jorge Amado, Km 29 Rod. Ilhéus-Itabuna, CP. 07 Departamento de Zootecnia e Ciências Biológicas Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Independência, n° 3751 Instituto Nacional de Colonização e Reforma Agrária - INCRA/SR22 - Alagoas Setor de Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais, Rua do Imperador, N° 105 Centro Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Botânica - Avenida Antônio Carlos, Pampulha Departamento de Ciências Biológicas Laboratório de Ecologia e Restauração Florestal (LERF) Universidade de São Paulo (USP) Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz” (ESALQ), Avenida Pádua Dias 11, 13.418-900 Herbarium Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Centro Universitario Regional del Este Universidad de la República, Tacuarembó y Bvar Departamento de Ciências e Matemática (DCM) Instituto Federal de Educação Ciência e Tecnologia de São Paulo (IFSP), Campus São Paulo, Rua Pedro Vicente, 625, Canindé Centro de Ciências Ciências Biológicas Universidade Federal do Ceará (UFC), Campus do PICI, Bloco 906 Reservas Votorantim, Rua Amauri, 255, 12° andar Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 3, 64st Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Biomas Tropicais Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto (UFOP), Campus Morro do Cruzeiro Instituto de Botânica de São Paulo Núcleo de Pesquisas Curadoria do Herbário, Avenida Miguel Stefano Instituto Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (IFRS), Rodovia RS 135, Km 25, Distrito Engenheiro Luiz Englert, Caixa Postal 21 Departamento de Botânica Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500 pr 43433 Conselho Superior de Ensino Pesquisa e Extensão Universidade Paulista (UNIP), Avenida Paulista, 900, 1°. Andar – Herbário, UNIP - Núcleo de Pesquisa em Biodiversidade - Bela Vista, 01310100 Laboratorio de Planificación Territorial Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales Facultad de Recursos Naturales Universidad Católica de Temuco, Rudecindo Ortega, 02950 Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia – ECZ Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), AC/Cidade Universitária. Trindade. CEP 88.040-970 Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235 - Cidade Universitária Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia (INPA), Rua Horizontina, 104, Centro Woods Hole Research Center, 149, Woods Hole Road Embrapa Cerrados/Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuária dos Cerrados, BR-020, Km 18 Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da Fonseca (CEFET-RJ), Rua Voluntários da Pátria, 30, Bairro Belo Horizonte Universidade do Oeste de Santa Catarina (UNOESC), Campus de São Miguel do Oeste, Rua Oiapoc, 211, Bairro Agostini São Miguel do Oeste Facultad de Ciencias Iguá y Mataojo Universidad de la República Departamento de Biologia Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), Via de Acesso Prof. Paulo Donato Castelane, S/N Instituto Federal do Espírito Santo (IFES), Rod. ES-080, Km 93, São João de Petrópolis Universidade Federal de Lavras (UFLA) Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Florestal, Caixa Postal 3037 Departamento de Microbiologia Imunologia e Parasitologia Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Campus Universitário, s/n, Sala 05, MIP - Córrego Grande Faculdades Integradas do Vale do Ribeira Laboratório de Biologia Rua Oscar Yoshiaki Magário União das Instituições de Serviços Ensino e Pesquisa Ltda (UNISEP), 185, Jardim das Palmeiras Faculdade de Ciências Biológicas e Ambientais - Rua João Rosa Góes Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), 1761 Reserva Natural Vale, Rodovia Brazil 101 Norte, Interior Divisão de Florestas e Estações Experimentais Instituto Florestal do Estado de São Paulo, Seção de Bauru, Av. Rodrigues Alves, 38-25, Horto Florestal Departamento de Ciências Biológicas Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana (UEFS), Avenida Transnordestina s.n. División Plantas Vasculares CONICET Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales Bernardino Rivadavia, Avenida Ángel Gallardo 470 Universidade Regional Integrada do Alto Uruguai e das Missões (URI), Ciências Biológicas Instituto Tecnológico Vale Biodiversidade e Serviços Ecossistêmicos, Rua Boaventura da Silva, 955 Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES) Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Florestais, Avenida Governador Lindemberg, 316, Centro Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), Campus Experimental de Registro, Av. Nelson Brihi Badur, 430 Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), Praça Infante Dom Henrique, São Vicente Departamento de Ecologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), CP. 199 Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), CP. 199 Departamento de Botânica Instituto de Biociências Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), Avenida 24 A, 1515, CP. 199 Departamento de Biologia Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), Via de Acesso Prof. Paulo Donato Castelane, S/N

When describing plant-animal interaction networks, sampling can be performed using plant- or animal-centred approaches. Despite known effects of sampling on network structure, how samplings affect the estimates of interaction β-diversity across networks is still unresolved. We investigated how the sampling method affects the assessment of β-diversity of interactions, turnover and rewiring. We contrasted plant- and animal-centred sampling methods applied to pollination networks across habitats in a heterogeneous tropical landscape, the Pantanal Wetlands. We also asked whether plant traits influence the difference in interaction specialization according to sampling. Plant-centred networks resulted in higher β-diversity of interactions in space than animal-centred networks. Turnover explained most of the β-diversity in both methods, but rewiring was proportionately more important when using the animal-centred method. While the plant-centred method indicated lower network modularity and specialization, floral traits modulated the effects of the sampling method on species-level network metrics. Combining animal- and plant-centred approaches returned intermediate values for β-diversity of interactions and network metrics. Distinct methods may also be better suited for answering questions at different scales. Our results point out that the method choice, or combination of methods, should always reflect the appropriate scale of the factors determining the interactions being investigated.

Interactions between species are influenced by different ecological mechanisms, such as morphological matching, phenological overlap and species abundances. How these mechanisms explain interaction frequencies across environmental gradients remains poorly understood. Consequently, we also know little about the mechanisms that drive the geographical patterns in network structure, such as complementary specialization and modularity. Here, we use data on morphologies, phenologies and abundances to explain interaction frequencies between hummingbirds and plants at a large geographical scale. For 24 quantitative networks sampled throughout the Americas, we found that the tendency of species to interact with morphologically matching partners contributed to specialized and modular network structures. Morphological matching best explained interaction frequencies in networks found closer to the equator and in areas with low-temperature seasonality. When comparing the three ecological mechanisms within networks, we found that both morphological matching and phenological overlap generally outperformed abundances in the explanation of interaction frequencies. Together, these findings provide insights into the ecological mechanisms that underlie geographical patterns in resource specialization. Notably, our results highlight morphological constraints on interactions as a potential explanation for increasing resource specialization towards lower latitudes.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY Seed and pollen dispersal are key processes shaping plant population dynamics and maintaining genetic diversity. The essence of these processes is the movement of propagules from a parental tree to the site of propagule establishment. The estimation of plant dispersal kernels has remained challenging due to the difficulty of making direct observations. We estimated the dispersal capacity of the endangered palm Euterpe edulis, whose seeds are dispersed by vertebrates and pollen by insects. METHODS We used a hierarchical Bayesian model with genetic data from reproductive plants, juveniles, and embryos to estimate dispersal kernels. Our analyses account for genotyping error and uncertainty in parental assignment. KEY RESULTS We found that seeds were dispersed at most a few hundred meters, but pollen was dispersed up to several kilometers. We hypothesize that this long-distance pollen dispersal is generated mainly by euglossine bees, whereas the main dispersal vectors for short-distance seed dispersal are thrushes. The long-distance dispersal of pollen suggests a high level of gene flow that should maintain genetic diversity of E. edulis. Despite the relation between long-distance dispersal and genetic diversity, we observed low genetic diversity and inbreeding within the local population, which are probably due to restricted gene flow due to the low density of this population and its aggregated spatial distribution. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that if conservation actions are able to restore the population density of E. edulis, the recovery of its genetic diversity will be facilitated because of its high dispersal capacity, especially with regard to pollen.

Plant-pollinator interactions and their reproductive implications are of central importance to the organization of plant populations and communities in restoration areas. We studied the breeding system and flower visitors of Pleroma trichopodum, a pioneer species of the Atlantic Forest. We attempted to answer three questions: (1) Is P. trichopodum dependent on pollinators and mates for reproduction? (2) What are the pollinators of P. trichopodum? (3) Do tree flower-density and flowering-tree density of P. trichopodum enhance the visitation rate of focal trees and their flowers? We tested the breeding system through pollination treatments. We performed focal observations on 10 trees and analyzed the relationship between tree and flower visitation rates, and the tree flower-density and flowering-tree density with Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM). Pleroma trichopodum sets fruits by selfing and outcrossing, both of which occur only through pollinator visits. Bees visited P. trichopodum, and their visitation increased with tree flower-density. Thus, individuals with greater floral displays may function as magnet species, enhancing the pollination of nearby plant species. This characteristic, allied with the ability to reproduce without a mate (selfing) and a tolerance of soggy soils, make P. trichopodum a candidate for Atlantic Forest restoration.

Author(s): Araujo, AC; Martin Gonzalez, AM; Sandel, B; Maruyama, PK; Fischer, E; Vizentin-Bugoni, J; de Araujo, FP; Coelho, AG; Faria, RR; Kohler, G; Las-Casas, FMG; Lopes, AV; Machado, AO; Machado, CG; Machado, IC; McGuire, JA; Moura, AC; Oliveira, GM; Oliveira, PE; Rocca, MA; Rodrigues, LDC; Rodrigues, M; Rui, AM; Sazima, I; Sazima, M; Varassin, IG; Wang, Z; Dalsgaard, B; Svenning, JC | Abstract: Aim: We examined the effects of space, climate, phylogeny and species traits on module composition in a cross-biomes plant–hummingbird network. Location: Brazil, except Amazonian region. Methods: We compiled 31 local binary plant–hummingbird networks, combining them into one cross-biomes metanetwork. We conducted a modularity analysis and tested the relationship between species’ module membership with traits, geographical location, climatic conditions and range sizes, employing random forest models. We fitted reduced models containing groups of related variables (climatic, spatial, phylogenetic, traits) and combinations of groups to partition the variance explained by these sets into unique and shared components. Results: The Brazilian cross-biomes network was composed of 479 plant and 42 hummingbird species, and showed significant modularity. The resulting six modules conformed well to vegetation domains. Only plant traits, not hummingbird traits, differed between modules, notably plants’ growth form, corolla length, flower shape and colour. Some modules included plant species with very restricted distributions, whereas others encompassed more widespread ones. Widespread hummingbirds were the most connected, both within and between modules, whereas widespread plants were the most connected between modules. Among traits, only nectar concentration had a weak effect on among-module connectivity. Main conclusions: Climate and spatial filters were the main determinants of module composition for hummingbirds and plants, potentially related to resource seasonality, especially for hummingbirds. Historical dispersal-linked contingency, or environmental variations not accounted for by the explanatory factors here evaluated, could also contribute to the spatial component. Phylogeny and morphological traits had no unique effects on the assignment of species to modules. Widespread species showed higher within- and/or among-module connectivity, indicating their key role connecting biomes, and, in the case of hummingbirds, communities within biomes. Our results indicate that biogeography and climate not only determine the variation of modularity in local plant–animal networks, as previously shown, but also affect the cross-biomes network structure.

Aim To investigate the association between hummingbird–plant network structure and species richness, phylogenetic signal on species' interaction pattern, insularity and historical and current climate. Location Fifty-four communities along a c. 10,000 km latitudinal gradient across the Americas (39° N–32° S), ranging from sea level to c. 3700 m a.s.l., located on the mainland and on islands and covering a wide range of climate regimes. Methods We measured the level of specialization and modularity in mutualistic plant–hummingbird interaction networks. Using an ordinary least squares multimodel approach, we examined the influence of species richness, phylogenetic signal, insularity and current and historical climate conditions on network structure (null-model-corrected specialization and modularity). Results Phylogenetically related species, especially plants, showed a tendency to interact with a similar array of mutualistic partners. The spatial variation in network structure exhibited a constant association with species phylogeny (R2 = 0.18–0.19); however, network structure showed the strongest association with species richness and environmental factors (R2 = 0.20–0.44 and R2 = 0.32–0.45, respectively). Specifically, higher levels of specialization and modularity were associated with species-rich communities and communities in which closely related hummingbirds visited distinct sets of flowering species. On the mainland, specialization was also associated with warmer temperatures and greater historical temperature stability. Main conclusions Our results confirm the results of previous macroecological studies of interaction networks which have highlighted the importance of species richness and the environment in determining network structure. Additionally, for the first time, we report an association between network structure and species phylogenetic signal at a macroecological scale, indicating that high specialization and modularity are associated with high interspecific competition among closely related hummingbirds, subdividing the floral niche. This suggests a tighter co-evolutionary association between hummingbirds and their plants than in previously studied plant–bird mutualistic systems.

The theory of complex networks has been recently used to explain ecological associations between nurses and seedlings in plant facilitation systems. The structure of these networks is potentially affected by morphological, ecological and evolutionary factors that can determine the facilitative interactions. In the present study, we evaluate the role of the projected crown area of the nurse plant, the dispersal syndrome, the abundance and the phylogeny relationships with seedlings as drivers of network structure in facilitation networks. To test these parameters, we used an ecotonal forest–grassland system in southern Brazil that experienced historical forest expansion over the grassland in the last few centuries. In two State Parks, Guartela (GUA) and Vila Velha (VVL), we sampled tree species (nurses and seedlings) along four transects parallel to the forest edge, with five sampling stations along each transect. Tree seedlings (height >0.3 m) were sampled below the nurse's crown (i.e. isolated woody plants, height >1.5 m) and over the grassland area. A total of 160 nurses and 358 seedlings were sampled. Seedling abundance and richness were greater below a nurse's crown than on open grassland. Nurse abundance was the best predictor of the observed interaction matrix. Probabilistic matrices based on abundance, abundance and phylogeny, and dominance were able to predict the observed nestedness values, and they were also closest to the observed connectance, although all of the probabilistic matrices have underestimated this property. Specialization was predicted by abundance and phylogeny, abundance and projected crown area drivers for VVL, and the abundance based models were closest to the predicted specialization for GUA. The result of a similar pattern in predictability between sites indicates that the influences of morphology and evolutionary and ecological processes over the facilitation interactions are equivalent on a regional scale. Woody plant abundance was a key factor for the facilitation networks, driving forest expansion along the subtropical forest–grassland ecotone.

Unfortunately, the detailed description of the ESM material went wrong in the published version of the dataset.

Plant size and clonality are important traits for explaining the reproductive effort of clonal plants. Larger plants can invest more resources into reproduction, and clonality is known to increase reproductive effort. Moreover, reproductive effort is influenced by environmental variation, and so the spatial distribution of plants may affect plant reproductive effort. We investigated the effect of plant size, clonality and spatial distribution on the reproductive effort of Vriesea carinata in the Atlantic Forest in the state of Paraná, Brazil. We marked twenty individual plants and measured their rosette size, biomass and number, as well as rosette reproductive effort (number of flowers, fruits and seeds). We also evaluated the relationship between reproductive effort and spatial distribution of plants. Reproductive effort did not correlate with size, whereas greater clonal growth contributed to a lower reproductive effort because rosettes within clones that had more rosettes set fewer flowers. We found that plants growing closer to each other exhibited similar reproductive efforts independently of vegetative traits, because reproductive traits were spatially autocorrelated. In Vriesea carinata, the main drivers of reproductive effort are clonality, which decreases flower production, and spatial factors, which result in greater similarity in reproductive efforts among more proximate plants.

Ecological communities that experience stable climate conditions have been speculated to preserve more specialized interspecific associations and have higher proportions of smaller ranged species (SRS). Thus, areas with disproportionally large numbers of SRS are expected to coincide geographically with a high degree of community-level ecological specialization, but this suggestion remains poorly supported with empirical evidence. Here, we analysed data for hummingbird resource specialization, range size, contemporary climate, and Late Quaternary climate stability for 46 hummingbird–plant mutualistic networks distributed across the Americas, representing 130 hummingbird species ( ca 40% of all hummingbird species). We demonstrate a positive relationship between the proportion of SRS of hummingbirds and community-level specialization, i.e. the division of the floral niche among coexisting hummingbird species. This relationship remained strong even when accounting for climate, furthermore, the effect of SRS on specialization was far stronger than the effect of specialization on SRS, suggesting that climate largely influences specialization through species' range-size dynamics. Irrespective of the exact mechanism involved, our results indicate that communities consisting of higher proportions of SRS may be vulnerable to disturbance not only because of their small geographical ranges, but also because of their high degree of specialization.

Aim: To investigate the role of alien plants in mutualistic plant-hummingbird networks, assessing the importance of species traits, floral abundance and insularity on alien plant integration. Location: Mainland and insular Americas. Methods: We used species-level network indices to assess the role of alien plants in 21 quantitative plant-hummingbird networks where alien plants occur. We then evaluated whether plant traits, including previous adaptations to bird pollination, and insularity predict these network roles. Additionally, for a subset of networks for which floral abundance data were available, we tested whether this relates to network roles. Finally, we tested the association between hummingbird traits and the probability of interaction with alien plants across the networks. Results: Within the 21 networks, we identified 32 alien plant species and 352 native plant species. On average, alien plant species attracted more hummingbird species (i.e. aliens had a higher degree) and had a higher proportion of interactions across their hummingbird visitors than native plants (i.e. aliens had a higher species strength). At the same time, an average alien plant was visited more exclusively by certain hummingbird species (i.e. had a higher level of complementary specialization). Large alien plants and those occurring on islands had more evenly distributed interactions, thereby acting as connectors. Other evaluated plant traits and floral abundance were unimportant predictors of network roles. Short-billed hummingbirds had higher probability of including alien plants in their interactions than long-billed species. Main conclusions: Once incorporated into plant-hummingbird networks, alien plants appear strongly integrated and, thus, may have a large influence on network dynamics. Plant traits and floral abundance were generally poor predictors of how well alien species are integrated. Short-billed hummingbirds, often characterized as functionally generalized pollinators, facilitate the integration of alien plants. Our results show that plant-hummingbird networks are open for invasion. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

A atividade dos polinizadores é afetada pela disponibilidade de recursos. Flores que produzem mais néctar podem ser mais visitadas e assim apresentar maior produção de frutos. O efeito da produção de néctar na atividade dos polinizadores foi testado em duas espécies cultivadas de maracujá, Passiflora alata Curtis e Passiflora edulis Sims, em Morretes, Paraná. Botões foram ensacados e o néctar acumulado das flores foi coletado em intervalos de 1 h. Em P. alata o volume e a concentração de solutos no néctar aumentaram durante o período de antese, associados com o aumento da temperatura. Em P. edulis, o volume aumentou durante o período diurno da antese, e decresceu após as 18 horas. A concentração de solutos no néctar permaneceu constante. A taxa média de visitação de Xylocopa frontalis (Olivier) em P. alata foi de 1,7 visitas/100flores/hora e em P. edulis foi de 6,6 visitas/100flores/hora, sendo constante durante a antese. A taxa média de visitação de Bombus morio (Swederus) em P. alata foi de 5,8 visitas/100flores/hora, sendo mais alta no início da antese. A constância das visitas de X. frontalis deve estar associada à produção contínua de néctar em ambas as espécies de maracujazeiros. Como as espécies são xenogâmicas, a manutenção das visitas é importante para propiciar o fluxo de pólen entre indivíduos e assim garantir boa produção de frutos.

Anisophylly can be defined as the unequal growth of two leaves in a pair from a single branch node. It occurs in several opposite-leafed taxa, even in those with apparently no phylogenetic proximity. We have intended here to classify and describe the anisophylly found in ten species of Melastomataceae from two genera, Leandra and Miconia, using morphometric data. We developed a method to quantify the level of anisophylly in these species, using a parameter called “Anisophylly Index” (AI), with values ranging from nearly 0 (isophyllous) to 1 (strongly anisophyllous). A comparison between the leaves from the erect and lateral branches of Leandra barbinervis showed that this species has incomplete lateral anisophylly; i.e., only the lateral branches are anisophyllous, and in these only the pairs positioned in a dorso-ventral position are unequal, while pairs positioned in a horizontal position are isophyllous. The lateral branches of all species showed incomplete anisophylly. There is no apparent re...

† Background and Aims Most neotropical Melastomataceae have bee-pollinated flowers with poricidal anthers. However, nectar rewards are known to be produced in about 80 species in eight genera from four different tribes. These nectar-producing species are pollinated by both vertebrates and invertebrates. † Methods The floral morphology and anatomy of 14 species was studied in six genera of nectar-producing Melastomataceae (Blakea, Brachyotum, Charianthus, Huilaea, Meriania and Miconia). Anatomical methods included scanning electron microscopy, and serial sections of paraffin-embedded flowers. † Key Results All vertebrate-pollinated melastome flowers have petals that do not open completely at anthesis, thus forming a pseudo-tubular corolla, while closely related species that are bee pollinated have rotate or reflexed corollas. In most species, nectar secretion is related to stomatal or epidermal nectaries and not filament slits as previously reported. Moreover, the nectar is probably supplied by large vascular bundles near the release area. Blakea and Huilaea have nectary stomata located upon the dorsal anther connective appendages. Brachyotum also has nectary stomata on the anther connectives, but these are distributed lengthwise along most of the connective. Meriania may release nectar through the anther connective, but has additional nectary stomata on the inner walls of the hypanthium. Miconia has nectary stomata on the ovary apex. Charianthus nectaries were not found, but there is circumstantial evidence that nectar release occurs through the epidermis at the apex of the ovary and the lower portions of the inner wall of the hypanthium. † Conclusions Nectar release in Melastomataceae is apparently related to nectary stomata and not filament slits. The presence of nectary stomata on stamens and on ovary apices in different lineages suggests that the acquisition of nectaries is a derived condition. Nectary location also supports a derived condition, because location is strongly consistent within each genus, but differs between genera.

The reciprocal importance of bromeliads and hummingbirds has been proposed for many years, even suggesting coevolution between these two groups. Nevertheless, data are lacking that allow a better test of the relationships involved. Here we investigate the relationship between bromeliads and hummingbirds in an area of secondary Atlantic rain forest in southern Brazil. The study examined the interactions among 12 species of bromeliad and 10 of hummingbird at Reserva Natural Salto Morato, Paraná state. The number of flowering species of bromeliad and the species richness and abundance of hummingbirds were quantified monthly between November 2004 and October 2005. Focal observations on each bromeliad species were made to determine the hummingbird visitors. Neither species richness nor abundance of hummingbirds were related to bromeliad phenology. Together with the monthly variation in visit frequency by a given pollinator to a given plant, these factors indicate a generalization in the use of bromeliads by hummingbirds and argue against tight coevolution. Ramphodon naevius and Thalurania glaucopis were the main pollinators in the community. Aechmea nudicaulis was the most generalist bromeliad species. The generalist species interacted with other generalists or with asymmetric specialists and there was no specialist–specialist interaction. This produced a strongly organized and nested matrix of interactions. This nestedness is similar to other plant-pollinators networks, supporting the hypothesis that the evolutionary relationship between bromeliads and hummingbirds is no stronger than that of other pollination networks.

The abundance and distribution of resources for pollinators modulate the reproduction of plants. This study attempted to determine whether and how the fruiting success of Tibouchina trichopoda flowers varies due to plant size, number of flowers produced, distance between individuals and cardinal orientation of the flowers. From July 2009 to February 2010, we conducted monthly evaluations of 21 plants in an area of regenerating forest within the Atlantic Forest biome, located near the municipality of Antonina, in southern Brazil. Floral density was monitored weekly. During the study period, the species bloomed twice: once during the cool, dry season, showing an extended flowering period with scattered flowering individuals; and once during the hot, rainy season, showing a brief flowering period with a high density of flowering individuals. Plant size was not found to influence fruiting success. There was greater production of flowers and fruits during the brief flowering period. The extent of the floral display positively affected the fruiting success of the flowers, the effect being greater when the density of flowers was low and tending to stabilize at higher densities. The northern-facing portions of tree crowns produced more flowers and therefore had greater fruiting success than did the southern-facing portions. However, the proportion of fruits produced per flower was the same.

Este trabalho teve por objetivo caracterizar os agentes polinizadores de uma comunidade de bromélias em Floresta Ombrófila Densa e relacionar possíveis associações entre a morfologia de bromélias e seus polinizadores. O estudo foi conduzido no Parque Estadual do Pico do Marumbi em oito espécies de bromélias que ocorrem na área. A comunidade de bromélias apresentou floração agregada entre os meses de novembro e maio. Cinco espécies de bromélias dos gêneros Nidularium Lem., Vriesea Lindl. e Wittrockia Lindm. foram polinizadas por beija-flores, duas espécies de Vriesea foram polinizadas por morcegos e uma espécie de Aechmea Ruiz & Pav., por abelhas. Foram identificadas 12 espécies de polinizadores, das quais oito beija-flores, três morcegos e uma abelha. A alta representatividade do beija-flor Phaethornis eurynome na polinização de bromélias sugere que ele atua como "espécie chave". Tornou-se evidente a influência do tamanho da corola e horário da antese, além da presença de odor e néctar, como determinadores de qual grupo animal atuará como polinizador, com formação de guildas distintas entre o conjunto de espécies de bromélias.

Neste trabalho foram estudados os sistemas reprodutivos de 22 espécies de Asteraceae ocorrentes na região de Curitiba, PR, tendo em vista investigar a ocorrência de apomixia em representantes subtropicais desta família. Testes de campo mostraram sete espécies produzindo frutos nos tratamentos de apomixia (Calea hispida, Taraxacum officinale, Baccharis cylindrica, B. dracunculifolia, Chromolaena ivaefolia, Trixis verbasciformis e Vernonia discolor), mas apenas as duas primeiras com sementes viáveis. As demais 15 espécies não produziram frutos nos tratamentos de apomixia: Bidens pilosa, B. tinctoria, Campovassouria cruciata, Chromolaena laevigata, Erechtites valerianaefolia, Hypochoeris radicata, H. tweediei, Lactuca scariola, Mutisia coccinea, Senecio brasiliensis, Sonchus oleraceus, Sphagneticola trilobata, Vernonia platensis e V. flexuosa apresentaram frutos formados em tratamentos de autopolinização espontânea, em níveis extremamente variáveis. Perezia cubataensis foi a única espécie que não apresentou autopolinização espontânea. Testes de viabilidade de pólen mostraram esterilidade muito baixa em todas as espécies (inclusive cinco apomíticas), à exceção de T. officinale e C. ivaefolia. A freqüência relativamente baixa de casos de apomixia entre Asteraceae de clima subtropical é notável, assim como a partenocarpia (produção e desenvolvimento de frutos sem sementes) encontrada em cinco das espécies estudadas . The breeding systems of 22 species of Asteraceae were studied in Curitiba, Paraná, southern Brazil, in order to investigate the occurrence of spontaneous apomixis in subtropical representatives of this family. Controlled pollination experiments indicated seven species presenting fruits in the apomixis treatment (Calea hispida, Taraxacum officinale, Baccharis cylindrica, B. dracunculifolia, Chromolaena ivaefolia, Trixis verbasciformis, and Vernonia discolor), but only the first two with viable seeds. The remaining 15 species did not show fruits in the apomixis treatment: Bidens pilosa, B. tinctoria, Campovassouria cruciata, Chromolaena laevigata, Erechtites valerianaefolia, Hypochoeris radicata, H. tweediei, Lactuca scariola, Mutisia coccinea, Senecio brasiliensis, Sonchus oleraceus, Sphagneticola trilobata, Vernonia platensis and V. flexuosa showed spontaneous self-pollination, but in highly variable levels. Perezia cubataensis was the only species that did not show spontaneous self-pollination. Pollen viability tests showed very low proportion of sterile grains for all species, except for T. officinale and C. ivaefolia. The relatively small frequency of spontaneous apomixis in this sample of subtropical Asteraceae is remarkable, as it is the parthenocarpy (production and maitenance of seedless fruits) found in five species.

Orientador : Marlies Sazima Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia Resmo: Este estudo teve por objetivo fornecer informações sobre os mecanismos que podem estar atuando na regulação da diversidade de bromélias e de seus polinizadores em uma área de floresta atlântica de encosta à luz dos dados disponíveis para florestas neotropicais. Este estudo foi conduzido na Estação Biológica de Santa Lúcia (EBSL), Santa Teresa, ES, e foi dividido em três capítulos. O capítulo I tratou da variação da distribuição das bromélias em função de variações da complexidade estrutural do habita!. Pela Análise de Redundância (RDA) a altitude, a exposição ao vento, a presença de clareiras, o perímetro das árvores e o número de plantas herbáceas explicaram a distribuição de espécies epífitas, enquanto que o declive, a exposição ao vento e a quantidade de folhagem explicaram a distribuição de espécies terrícolas. A abundância e/ou o número de bromélias epífitas foram correlacionadas com o perímetro do tronco (P AP) das plantas arbóreas, altitude, com o número e a altura das árvores. A abundância de bromélias terrícolas foi correlacionada negativamente com o declive da parcela e positivamente com a quantidade de folhagem. A complexidade estrutural do habitat influenciou a diversidade de bromélias epífitas, possivelmente tanto em função do aumento de nichos disponíveis, mas também em função da composição diferencial de bromélias entre manchas ambientais. Foi discutido, no capítulo II, a seleção de habitat das bromélias por árvores hospedeiras e por zonas das árvores. As bromélias não colonizaram especialmente nenhuma espécie, gênero ou família de árvore hospedeira, apenas Euterpe edu/is foi pouco utilizada como hospedeira. O número de árvores ocupadas por bromélias em diversos táxons foi relacionado à sua abundância. As bromélias epífitas ocuparam preferencialmente o fuste, sendo bromélias raras ou ausentes na base do fuste. Os gêneros de bromélias, Aechmea, Tillandsia e Vriesea, e as espécies mais abundantes de bromélias apresentaram seleção por determinadas zonas das árvores. A5 espécies mais abundantes apresentaram uma zonação vertical que parece associada às condições de luminosidade As espécies com menor sobreposição de nicho devem necessitar condições ambientais especiais e isto parece refletir-se nas diferenças de distribuição geográfica destas espécies. No capítulo III foram abordados alguns mecanismos que podem estar envolvidos na relação entre a diversidade de polinizadores e bromélias. A maioria das espécies apresentou floração anuaL Não houve sazonal idade marcada na floração das bromélias, que parece ser seqüencial. A disponibilidade de flores de bromélias ao longo do ano toma possível a pennanência de espécies residentes de beijaflores, como Phaethornis eurynome, P. squalidus e Ramphodon naevius. Foram registrados os polinizadores de 23 espécies de bromélias que ocorrem na EBSL. Beija-flores foram polinizadores de 84% das espécies de bromélias, com algumas sobreposiçâes com abelhas e borboletas. Parte das espécies ornitófilas foi polinizada por beija-flores de bico longo enquanto que outra parte, por beija-flores de bico curto. Na RDA. Phaethomis ewynome, P. squalidus, Ramphodon naevius, Thalurania glaucopis e as borboletas He/iconiU8 erato e fi. nattereri tiveram sua ocorrência relacionada a alguns fatores ambientais, entre eles a abundância de bromélias, abundância de árvores e diversidade horizontal em cada parcela. Os beija-flores residentes, Phaethornis eurynome, P. squalidus e Rarpphodon naevius, foram considerados espécies - chave na polinização das bromélias na EBSL Abstract: In this study the mechanisms that can be acting li the regulation of bromeliad diversity were ínvestigated in an atlantic forest. This study was carried out at Estação Biológica de Santa Lúcia (EBSL), Santa Teresa, ES. Chapter I dealt with the effect ofthe variation ofthe habitat structuraI complexity on the distribution of bromeliad species. Redundancy Analysís (RDA) showed that altitude, exposition to Doutorado Doutor em Ecologia

Breeding systems of Melastomataceae in Serra do Japi, Jundiai, Sao Paulo, Brazil). The breeding systems of some Melastomataceae species were investigated in populations from forests on the Serra do Japi, southeastern Brazil. This study was based on controlled pollinations and analysis of pollen viability and pollen-tube growth. Among populations of the 13 species studied, seven showed apomictic fruits (Leandra australis, L. melastomoides, L. purpurascens, Miconia latecrenata, M. petropolitana, Ossaea amygdaloides e O. confertiflora). Among the six non-apomictic species only one showed self- incompatibility (Miconia pusilliflora), whereas the others showed self-compatibility (Leandra dasytricha, L. regnellii, Tibouchina cerastifolia, T. sellowiana e T. semidecandra). Pollen analysis showed that the apomictic species have significantly lower viability levels than the non-apomictic species. RESUMO - (Sistemas reprodutivos de especies de Melastomataceae da Serra do Japi, Jundiai, Sao Paulo, Brasil). Neste trabalho foram investigados os sistemas reprodutivos de especies de Melastomataceae ocorrentes em formacoes florestais da Serra do Japi. Esta investigacao foi baseada em polinizacoes controladas e em analises de viabilidade de polen e de crescimento de tubo polinico. Entre as populacoes de 13 especies estudadas, sete mostraram producao de frutos apomiticos (Leandra australis, L. melastomoides, L. purpurascens, Miconia latecrenata, M. petropolitana, Ossaea amygdaloides e O. confertiflora). Entre as seis especies nao apomiticas, apenas uma apresentou mecanismo de auto-incompatibilidade (Miconia pusilliflora), enquanto que as demais se mostraram auto-compativeis (Leandra dasytricha, L. regnellii, Tibouchina cerastifolia, T. sellowiana e T. semidecandra). A analise de polen mostrou que as especies apomiticas produzem uma proporcao de graos viaveis significativamente menor do que aquelas que nao sao apomiticas.

RESUMO A polinização de Passiflora alata Dryander decorre da atividade de coleta de néctar ou pólen por abelhas Anthophoridae e Apidae de grande porte durante todo o período de floração entre março e setembro. O vôo, possivelmente seguindo rotas de visitas, permite a polinização cruzada, favorecida pela deflexão dos órgãos reprodutivos. Há flores que não apresentam deflexão dos estiletes e podem ser consideradas como funcionalmente masculinas, o que pode interferir na alocação total de recursos para a produção de sementes.

Orientadores: Marlies Sazima, Jose Roberto Trigo Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia Resumo: Foram estudadas quatro espécies de Passíflora. P. alata, P. galbana (Parque Estadual de Setiba, Guarapari, ES) e P. mucronata (Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar, Núcleo Picinguaba, Ubatuba, SP), que pertencem ao subgênero Passíflora e ocorrem em vegetação de restinga. P. speciosa Gardn. , subgênero Distephana, ocorre em mata atlântica de tabuleiro da Reserva Florestal da CVRD (RFCVRD), Unhares, ES. Foi analisado qualitativa - e quantitativamente o recurso alimentar e foram identificados os constituintes químicos que compõe as unidades de atração visual e olfativa nestas espécies de Passiflora. Foi observado que as espécies de Passiflora estudadas dependem de vetores de pólen para a produção de frutos. P. alata é melitófila, P. galbana e P. mucronata são quiropterófilas e P. speciosa é ornitófila. A polinização é favorecida pela deflexão dos órgãos reprodutivos, que permite que os animais os toquem. O néctar é o recurso alimentar procurado pelos visitantes florais, sendo que o comportamento dos polinizadores vertebrados parece refletir a disponibilidade do recurso, forrageando quando há mais volume de néctar e quando a previsibilidade da quantidade de recurso é maior. A dinâmica de secreção de néctar das espécies estudadas está relacionada com a hidrólise de amido armazenado no nectário. Parece haver uma relação entre o tipo de polinizador e a composição do néctar, inclusive a quantidade de lipídios presentes e a razão Na+/K+. O espectro de absorção nas faixas UV-VIS encontrado nestas flores se adequa à sensibilidade espectral da visão dos polinizadores, com presença de antocianidinas em P. a/ata e P. speciosa. As espécies quiropterófilas possuem pigmentos que refletem na região do visível, e devem ter uma função menos importante na localização das flores por morcegos. Nas espécies polinizadas por animais cujo olfato é bastante desenvolvido, há maior abundância de classes de compostos voláteis. Compostos aromáticos hidroxilados e monoterpenos são provavelmente os responsáveis pelo perfume adocicado das flores de P. alata. Em P. galbana, estes compostos tem participação expressiva no seu perfil de odores. P. speciosa tem leve odor acre, provavelmente conferido por hidrocarbonetos. Sinais olfativos devem estar permitindo a localização do recurso a longa distância, enquanto que a localização do recurso a curta distância seria possível através de orientação visuail ou acústica. Vários compostos que formam as fragrâncias destas espécies de Passiflora ocorrem em outras espécies de plantas; alguns destes também ocorrem em secreções exócrinas de abelhas Abstract: Four species of Passiflora were studied. P. alata, P. galbana (Parque Estadual de Setiba, Guarapari, ES) and P. mucronata (Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar, Núcleo Picinguaba, Ubatuba, SP), belong to the Passiflora subgenus, and occur in restinga vegetation. P. speciosa Gardn., Distephana subgenus occurs in Atlantic forest in the Reserva Florestal da CVRD (RFCVRD), Unhares. The central aims of this study were to analise qualitative and quantitative aspects of the food resources, and to identify visual and olfactory chemical constituents of the units of attraction in these species of Passiflora, to verify their role in pollinator selection, since they have distinct pollination syndromes. Those Passiflora species depend on pollen vectors to produce fruits. P. alata is mellitophylous, P. galbana and P. mucronata are chiropterophylous and P. speciosa is an ornithophylous species. Pollination is facilitated due to the deflection of the reproductive organs. Floral visitors search for nectar as a food resource; the vertebrate pollinator behavior seems to reflect resource availability, as they forage when large amounts of nectar are found and when quantitative resource predictability is greater. The dynamics of nectar secretion is related to nectary starch hydrolysis. There seems to be a relationship between pollinator type and the nectar composition, such as amounts of lipids and Na+/K+ ratio. The UV-VIS spectral absortion of flowers is adjusted to the pollinators' visual spectral sensitivity, with anthocyanidins present in P. alata and P. speciosa. Pigments of the chiropterophylous species reflect in the visible spectra, and might have a little importance in flower location. There is a higher class diversity among the volatiles compounds in the species pollinated by animais with an acute olfactory sense. Hydroxylated aromatic compounds and monoterpenes are probably responsible for the sweet scent of P. alata. In P. galbana, they are also important compounds in the scent profile. P. speciosa has a very faint acrid smell, probably from hydrocarbons. Long distance resource location is probably accomplished by olfactive signals, although visual or acoustic signals could be responsible for short distance orientation. Fragrance compositions of these Passiflora species show compounds also present in other species and in the exocrine secretions of bees Mestrado Ecologia Mestre em Ciências Biológicas

Niche and neutral processes shape community assembly with a possible shift of niche and neutral importance in communities undergoing temporal changes during succession. Functional diversity helps to discriminate assembly processes since trait distribution is dependent on those processes. We evaluated the changes in reproductive traits related to pollination and seed dispersal in a successional gradient in an Atlantic Forest area, Southern Brazil. We surveyed forests undergoing regeneration varying in age from 2 to 80 years after pasture abandonment. We expected an increase in functional diversity of reproductive traits and a greater role of limiting similarity across succession. Abiotic and mixed pollination systems, dioecious sexual system, biotic dispersed, many-seeded and small-seeded species decreased as the forest got older. Conversely, bee-pollinated, bell-shaped, small and androgynous flowers increased across forest succession as well biotic dispersed and large-seeded species. Functional richness and functional dispersion were higher in older forests. Changes in functional diversity were positively related to species richness, indicating that species enrichment in older forests added new sets of reproductive traits. These changes in trait distribution and functional diversity across succession in the Atlantic Forest suggest an increased role of biotic interactions and limiting similarity process structuring plant assemblages of second-growth tropical forests. Resumo As florestas apresentam um enriquecimento gradual de espécies e um aumento em complexidade estrutural e funcional durante a sucessão. Este trabalho caracterizou os traços reprodutivos de plantas relacionados à polinização e à dispersão em um gradiente sucessional, em uma área de Mata Atlântica, Sul do Brasil. O levantamento das espécies foi realizado em áreas florestais sucessionais oriundas de regeneração natural, em idades variando entre 2 e 80 anos após o abandono da pastagem. Houve predominância de flores polinizadas por abelhas, abertas, hermafroditas e que disponibilizam o pólen como em todos estádios sucessionais. Os sistemas de polinização abiótico e misto, sistema sexual dióico, espécies com dispersão abiótica, com muitas sementes e sementes pequenas diminuíram com a idade das florestas. Espécies polinizadas por abelhas, flores com corola funil/sino, como de corola pequena e andróginas assim como espécies dispersas bioticamente e com sementes grandes aumentaram no gradiente sucessional. A riqueza funcional e a dispersão funcional aumentaram no gradiente sucessional. As mudanças da diversidade funcional foram relacionadas com o aumento da riqueza de espécies indicando que o enriquecimento de espécies em florestas mais velhas adicionou novos conjuntos de traços reprodutivos. Estas mudanças de distribuição de traços e de diversidade funcional no gradiente sucessional sugerem um incremento do papel de interações bióticas na estruturação de assembleias de plantas de florestas tropicais secundárias.