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For end-to-end Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) models, recognizing personal or rare phrases can be hard. A promising way to improve accuracy is through spelling correction (or rewriting) of the ASR lattice, where potentially misrecognized phrases are replaced with acoustically similar and contextually relevant alternatives. However, rewriting is challenging for ASR models trained with connectionist temporal classification (CTC) due to noisy hypotheses produced by a non-autoregressive, context-independent beam search. We present a finite-state transducer (FST) technique for rewriting wordpiece lattices generated by Transformer-based CTC models. Our algorithm performs grapheme-to-phoneme (G2P) conversion directly from wordpieces into phonemes, avoiding explicit word representations and exploiting the richness of the CTC lattice. Our approach requires no retraining or modification of the ASR model. We achieved up to a 15.2% relative reduction in sentence error rate (SER) on a test set with contextually relevant entities., Comment: 8 pages, 7 figures

One challenge in speech translation is that plenty of spoken content is long-form, but short units are necessary for obtaining high-quality translations. To address this mismatch, we adapt large language models (LLMs) to split long ASR transcripts into segments that can be independently translated so as to maximize the overall translation quality. We overcome the tendency of hallucination in LLMs by incorporating finite-state constraints during decoding; these eliminate invalid outputs without requiring additional training. We discover that LLMs are adaptable to transcripts containing ASR errors through prompt-tuning or fine-tuning. Relative to a state-of-the-art automatic punctuation baseline, our best LLM improves the average BLEU by 2.9 points for English-German, English-Spanish, and English-Arabic TED talk translation in 9 test sets, just by improving segmentation., Comment: accepted to the Findings of EMNLP 2023. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2212.09895

Federated Averaging, and many federated learning algorithm variants which build upon it, have a limitation: all clients must share the same model architecture. This results in unused modeling capacity on many clients, which limits model performance. To address this issue, we propose a method that involves training a small model on the entire pool and a larger model on a subset of clients with higher capacity. The models exchange information bidirectionally via knowledge distillation, utilizing an unlabeled dataset on a server without sharing parameters. We present two variants of our method, which improve upon federated averaging on image classification and language modeling tasks. We show this technique can be useful even if only out-of-domain or limited in-domain distillation data is available. Additionally, the bi-directional knowledge distillation allows for domain transfer between the models when different pool populations introduce domain shift.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated impressive capabilities for text rewriting. Nonetheless, the large sizes of these models make them impractical for on-device inference, which would otherwise allow for enhanced privacy and economical inference. Creating a smaller yet potent language model for text rewriting presents a formidable challenge because it requires balancing the need for a small size with the need to retain the emergent capabilities of the LLM, that requires costly data collection. To address the above challenge, we introduce a new instruction tuning approach for building a mobile-centric text rewriting model. Our strategies enable the generation of high quality training data without any human labeling. In addition, we propose a heuristic reinforcement learning framework which substantially enhances performance without requiring preference data. To further bridge the performance gap with the larger server-side model, we propose an effective approach that combines the mobile rewrite agent with the server model using a cascade. To tailor the text rewriting tasks to mobile scenarios, we introduce MessageRewriteEval, a benchmark that focuses on text rewriting for messages through natural language instructions. Through empirical experiments, we demonstrate that our on-device model surpasses the current state-of-the-art LLMs in text rewriting while maintaining a significantly reduced model size. Notably, we show that our proposed cascading approach improves model performance.

We propose a method of segmenting long-form speech by separating semantically complete sentences within the utterance. This prevents the ASR decoder from needlessly processing faraway context while also preventing it from missing relevant context within the current sentence. Semantically complete sentence boundaries are typically demarcated by punctuation in written text; but unfortunately, spoken real-world utterances rarely contain punctuation. We address this limitation by distilling punctuation knowledge from a bidirectional teacher language model (LM) trained on written, punctuated text. We compare our segmenter, which is distilled from the LM teacher, against a segmenter distilled from a acoustic-pause-based teacher used in other works, on a streaming ASR pipeline. The pipeline with our segmenter achieves a 3.2% relative WER gain along with a 60 ms median end-of-segment latency reduction on a YouTube captioning task., Comment: Interspeech 2023. First 3 authors contributed equally

Compact user representations (such as embeddings) form the backbone of personalization services. In this work, we present a new theoretical framework to measure re-identification risk in such user representations. Our framework, based on hypothesis testing, formally bounds the probability that an attacker may be able to obtain the identity of a user from their representation. As an application, we show how our framework is general enough to model important real-world applications such as the Chrome's Topics API for interest-based advertising. We complement our theoretical bounds by showing provably good attack algorithms for re-identification that we use to estimate the re-identification risk in the Topics API. We believe this work provides a rigorous and interpretable notion of re-identification risk and a framework to measure it that can be used to inform real-world applications.

A challenge in spoken language translation is that plenty of spoken content is long-form, but short units are necessary for obtaining high-quality translations. To address this mismatch, we fine-tune a general-purpose, large language model to split long ASR transcripts into segments that can be independently translated so as to maximize the overall translation quality. We compare to several segmentation strategies and find that our approach improves BLEU score on three languages by an average of 2.7 BLEU overall compared to an automatic punctuation baseline. Further, we demonstrate the effectiveness of two constrained decoding strategies to improve well-formedness of the model output from above 99% to 100%.

We report on novel investigations into training models that make sentences concise. We define the task and show that it is different from related tasks such as summarization and simplification. For evaluation, we release two test sets, consisting of 2000 sentences each, that were annotated by two and five human annotators, respectively. We demonstrate that conciseness is a difficult task for which zero-shot setups with large neural language models often do not perform well. Given the limitations of these approaches, we propose a synthetic data generation method based on round-trip translations. Using this data to either train Transformers from scratch or fine-tune T5 models yields our strongest baselines that can be further improved by fine-tuning on an artificial conciseness dataset that we derived from multi-annotator machine translation test sets., Comment: EMNLP 2022 Workshop on Text Simplification, Accessibility, and Readability (TSAR)

Recent trends towards training ever-larger language models have substantially improved machine learning performance across linguistic tasks. However, the huge cost of training larger models can make tuning them prohibitively expensive, motivating the study of more efficient methods. Gradient-based hyper-parameter optimization offers the capacity to tune hyper-parameters during training, yet has not previously been studied in a sequence-to-sequence setting. We apply a simple and general gradient-based hyperparameter optimization method to sequence-to-sequence tasks for the first time, demonstrating both efficiency and performance gains over strong baselines for both Neural Machine Translation and Natural Language Understanding (NLU) tasks (via T5 pretraining). For translation, we show the method generalizes across language pairs, is more efficient than Bayesian hyper-parameter optimization, and that learned schedules for some hyper-parameters can out-perform even optimal constant-valued tuning. For T5, we show that learning hyper-parameters during pretraining can improve performance across downstream NLU tasks. When learning multiple hyper-parameters concurrently, we show that the global learning rate can follow a schedule over training that improves performance and is not explainable by the `short-horizon bias' of greedy methods \citep{wu2018}. We release the code used to facilitate further research., Comment: 18 pages, 6 figures, In Proceedings of AutoML 2022 (Workshop track), Baltimore, MD, USA

Text-editing models have recently become a prominent alternative to seq2seq models for monolingual text-generation tasks such as grammatical error correction, simplification, and style transfer. These tasks share a common trait - they exhibit a large amount of textual overlap between the source and target texts. Text-editing models take advantage of this observation and learn to generate the output by predicting edit operations applied to the source sequence. In contrast, seq2seq models generate outputs word-by-word from scratch thus making them slow at inference time. Text-editing models provide several benefits over seq2seq models including faster inference speed, higher sample efficiency, and better control and interpretability of the outputs. This tutorial provides a comprehensive overview of text-editing models and current state-of-the-art approaches, and analyzes their pros and cons. We discuss challenges related to productionization and how these models can be used to mitigate hallucination and bias, both pressing challenges in the field of text generation., Comment: Accepted as a tutorial at NAACL 2022

The softmax layer in neural machine translation is designed to model the distribution over mutually exclusive tokens. Machine translation, however, is intrinsically uncertain: the same source sentence can have multiple semantically equivalent translations. Therefore, we propose to replace the softmax activation with a multi-label classification layer that can model ambiguity more effectively. We call our loss function Single-label Contrastive Objective for Non-Exclusive Sequences (SCONES). We show that the multi-label output layer can still be trained on single reference training data using the SCONES loss function. SCONES yields consistent BLEU score gains across six translation directions, particularly for medium-resource language pairs and small beam sizes. By using smaller beam sizes we can speed up inference by a factor of 3.9x and still match or improve the BLEU score obtained using softmax. Furthermore, we demonstrate that SCONES can be used to train NMT models that assign the highest probability to adequate translations, thus mitigating the "beam search curse". Additional experiments on synthetic language pairs with varying levels of uncertainty suggest that the improvements from SCONES can be attributed to better handling of ambiguity., Comment: NAACL 2022 paper

In many natural language processing (NLP) tasks the same input (e.g. source sentence) can have multiple possible outputs (e.g. translations). To analyze how this ambiguity (also known as intrinsic uncertainty) shapes the distribution learned by neural sequence models we measure sentence-level uncertainty by computing the degree of overlap between references in multi-reference test sets from two different NLP tasks: machine translation (MT) and grammatical error correction (GEC). At both the sentence- and the task-level, intrinsic uncertainty has major implications for various aspects of search such as the inductive biases in beam search and the complexity of exact search. In particular, we show that well-known pathologies such as a high number of beam search errors, the inadequacy of the mode, and the drop in system performance with large beam sizes apply to tasks with high level of ambiguity such as MT but not to less uncertain tasks such as GEC. Furthermore, we propose a novel exact $n$-best search algorithm for neural sequence models, and show that intrinsic uncertainty affects model uncertainty as the model tends to overly spread out the probability mass for uncertain tasks and sentences., Comment: ACL 2022 paper

Most studies in cross-device federated learning focus on small models, due to the server-client communication and on-device computation bottlenecks. In this work, we leverage various techniques for mitigating these bottlenecks to train larger language models in cross-device federated learning. With systematic applications of partial model training, quantization, efficient transfer learning, and communication-efficient optimizers, we are able to train a $21$M parameter Transformer and $20.2$M parameter Conformer that achieve the same or better perplexity as that of a similarly sized LSTM with $\sim10\times$ smaller client-to-server communication cost and $11\%$ lower perplexity than smaller LSTMs commonly studied in literature.

Language model fusion helps smart assistants recognize words which are rare in acoustic data but abundant in text-only corpora (typed search logs). However, such corpora have properties that hinder downstream performance, including being (1) too large, (2) beset with domain-mismatched content, and (3) heavy-headed rather than heavy-tailed (excessively many duplicate search queries such as "weather"). We show that three simple strategies for selecting language modeling data can dramatically improve rare-word recognition without harming overall performance. First, to address the heavy-headedness, we downsample the data according to a soft log function, which tunably reduces high frequency (head) sentences. Second, to encourage rare-word exposure, we explicitly filter for words rare in the acoustic data. Finally, we tackle domain-mismatch via perplexity-based contrastive selection, filtering for examples matched to the target domain. We down-select a large corpus of web search queries by a factor of 53x and achieve better LM perplexities than without down-selection. When shallow-fused with a state-of-the-art, production speech engine, our LM achieves WER reductions of up to 24% relative on rare-word sentences (without changing overall WER) compared to a baseline LM trained on the raw corpus. These gains are further validated through favorable side-by-side evaluations on live voice search traffic., Comment: Interspeech 2022

Capitalization normalization (truecasing) is the task of restoring the correct case (uppercase or lowercase) of noisy text. We propose a fast, accurate and compact two-level hierarchical word-and-character-based recurrent neural network model. We use the truecaser to normalize user-generated text in a Federated Learning framework for language modeling. A case-aware language model trained on this normalized text achieves the same perplexity as a model trained on text with gold capitalization. In a real user A/B experiment, we demonstrate that the improvement translates to reduced prediction error rates in a virtual keyboard application. Similarly, in an ASR language model fusion experiment, we show reduction in uppercase character error rate and word error rate., Comment: arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:2108.11943

Text normalization, or the process of transforming text into a consistent, canonical form, is crucial for speech applications such as text-to-speech synthesis (TTS). In TTS, the system must decide whether to verbalize "1995" as "nineteen ninety five" in "born in 1995" or as "one thousand nine hundred ninety five" in "page 1995". We present an experimental comparison of various Transformer-based sequence-to-sequence (seq2seq) models of text normalization for speech and evaluate them on a variety of datasets of written text aligned to its normalized spoken form. These models include variants of the 2-stage RNN-based tagging/seq2seq architecture introduced by Zhang et al. (2019), where we replace the RNN with a Transformer in one or more stages, as well as vanilla Transformers that output string representations of edit sequences. Of our approaches, using Transformers for sentence context encoding within the 2-stage model proved most effective, with the fine-tuned BERT encoder yielding the best performance.

Truecasing is the task of restoring the correct case (uppercase or lowercase) of noisy text generated either by an automatic system for speech recognition or machine translation or by humans. It improves the performance of downstream NLP tasks such as named entity recognition and language modeling. We propose a fast, accurate and compact two-level hierarchical word-and-character-based recurrent neural network model, the first of its kind for this problem. Using sequence distillation, we also address the problem of truecasing while ignoring token positions in the sentence, i.e. in a position-invariant manner.

Synthetic data generation is widely known to boost the accuracy of neural grammatical error correction (GEC) systems, but existing methods often lack diversity or are too simplistic to generate the broad range of grammatical errors made by human writers. In this work, we use error type tags from automatic annotation tools such as ERRANT to guide synthetic data generation. We compare several models that can produce an ungrammatical sentence given a clean sentence and an error type tag. We use these models to build a new, large synthetic pre-training data set with error tag frequency distributions matching a given development set. Our synthetic data set yields large and consistent gains, improving the state-of-the-art on the BEA-19 and CoNLL-14 test sets. We also show that our approach is particularly effective in adapting a GEC system, trained on mixed native and non-native English, to a native English test set, even surpassing real training data consisting of high-quality sentence pairs., Comment: Proceedings of the 16th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications, 2021. https://github.com/google-research-datasets/C4_200M-synthetic-dataset-for-grammatical-error-correction

We introduce Lookup-Table Language Models (LookupLM), a method for scaling up the size of RNN language models with only a constant increase in the floating point operations, by increasing the expressivity of the embedding table. In particular, we instantiate an (additional) embedding table which embeds the previous n-gram token sequence, rather than a single token. This allows the embedding table to be scaled up arbitrarily -- with a commensurate increase in performance -- without changing the token vocabulary. Since embeddings are sparsely retrieved from the table via a lookup; increasing the size of the table adds neither extra operations to each forward pass nor extra parameters that need to be stored on limited GPU/TPU memory. We explore scaling n-gram embedding tables up to nearly a billion parameters. When trained on a 3-billion sentence corpus, we find that LookupLM improves long tail log perplexity by 2.44 and long tail WER by 23.4% on a downstream speech recognition task over a standard RNN language model baseline, an improvement comparable to a scaling up the baseline by 6.2x the number of floating point operations., Comment: Presented as conference paper at Interspeech 2021

We propose Seq2Edits, an open-vocabulary approach to sequence editing for natural language processing (NLP) tasks with a high degree of overlap between input and output texts. In this approach, each sequence-to-sequence transduction is represented as a sequence of edit operations, where each operation either replaces an entire source span with target tokens or keeps it unchanged. We evaluate our method on five NLP tasks (text normalization, sentence fusion, sentence splitting & rephrasing, text simplification, and grammatical error correction) and report competitive results across the board. For grammatical error correction, our method speeds up inference by up to 5.2x compared to full sequence models because inference time depends on the number of edits rather than the number of target tokens. For text normalization, sentence fusion, and grammatical error correction, our approach improves explainability by associating each edit operation with a human-readable tag., Comment: Accepted at EMNLP 2020

End-to-end (E2E) automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems lack the distinct language model (LM) component that characterizes traditional speech systems. While this simplifies the model architecture, it complicates the task of incorporating text-only data into training, which is important to the recognition of tail words that do not occur often in audio-text pairs. While shallow fusion has been proposed as a method for incorporating a pre-trained LM into an E2E model at inference time, it has not yet been explored for very large text corpora, and it has been shown to be very sensitive to hyperparameter settings in the beam search. In this work, we apply shallow fusion to incorporate a very large text corpus into a state-of-the-art E2EASR model. We explore the impact of model size and show that intelligent pruning of the training set can be more effective than increasing the parameter count. Additionally, we show that incorporating the LM in minimum word error rate (MWER) fine tuning makes shallow fusion far less dependent on optimal hyperparameter settings, reducing the difficulty of that tuning problem.

Recent progress in the task of Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) has been driven by addressing data sparsity, both through new methods for generating large and noisy pretraining data and through the publication of small and higher-quality finetuning data in the BEA-2019 shared task. Building upon recent work in Neural Machine Translation (NMT), we make use of both kinds of data by deriving example-level scores on our large pretraining data based on a smaller, higher-quality dataset. In this work, we perform an empirical study to discover how to best incorporate delta-log-perplexity, a type of example scoring, into a training schedule for GEC. In doing so, we perform experiments that shed light on the function and applicability of delta-log-perplexity. Models trained on scored data achieve state-of-the-art results on common GEC test sets., Comment: Accepted to TACL (Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics)

In this paper we present an end-to-end speech recognition model with Transformer encoders that can be used in a streaming speech recognition system. Transformer computation blocks based on self-attention are used to encode both audio and label sequences independently. The activations from both audio and label encoders are combined with a feed-forward layer to compute a probability distribution over the label space for every combination of acoustic frame position and label history. This is similar to the Recurrent Neural Network Transducer (RNN-T) model, which uses RNNs for information encoding instead of Transformer encoders. The model is trained with the RNN-T loss well-suited to streaming decoding. We present results on the LibriSpeech dataset showing that limiting the left context for self-attention in the Transformer layers makes decoding computationally tractable for streaming, with only a slight degradation in accuracy. We also show that the full attention version of our model beats the-state-of-the art accuracy on the LibriSpeech benchmarks. Our results also show that we can bridge the gap between full attention and limited attention versions of our model by attending to a limited number of future frames., Comment: This is the final version of the paper submitted to the ICASSP 2020 on Oct 21, 2019

Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) has been recently modeled using the sequence-to-sequence framework. However, unlike sequence transduction problems such as machine translation, GEC suffers from the lack of plentiful parallel data. We describe two approaches for generating large parallel datasets for GEC using publicly available Wikipedia data. The first method extracts source-target pairs from Wikipedia edit histories with minimal filtration heuristics, while the second method introduces noise into Wikipedia sentences via round-trip translation through bridge languages. Both strategies yield similar sized parallel corpora containing around 4B tokens. We employ an iterative decoding strategy that is tailored to the loosely supervised nature of our constructed corpora. We demonstrate that neural GEC models trained using either type of corpora give similar performance. Fine-tuning these models on the Lang-8 corpus and ensembling allows us to surpass the state of the art on both the CoNLL-2014 benchmark and the JFLEG task. We provide systematic analysis that compares the two approaches to data generation and highlights the effectiveness of ensembling., Comment: Accepted at NAACL 2019. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1811.01710

Multimodal language models attempt to incorporate non-linguistic features for the language modeling task. In this work, we extend a standard recurrent neural network (RNN) language model with features derived from videos. We train our models on data that is two orders-of-magnitude bigger than datasets used in prior work. We perform a thorough exploration of model architectures for combining visual and text features. Our experiments on two corpora (YouCookII and 20bn-something-something-v2) show that the best performing architecture consists of middle fusion of visual and text features, yielding over 25% relative improvement in perplexity. We report analysis that provides insights into why our multimodal language model improves upon a standard RNN language model.

Lingvo is a Tensorflow framework offering a complete solution for collaborative deep learning research, with a particular focus towards sequence-to-sequence models. Lingvo models are composed of modular building blocks that are flexible and easily extensible, and experiment configurations are centralized and highly customizable. Distributed training and quantized inference are supported directly within the framework, and it contains existing implementations of a large number of utilities, helper functions, and the newest research ideas. Lingvo has been used in collaboration by dozens of researchers in more than 20 papers over the last two years. This document outlines the underlying design of Lingvo and serves as an introduction to the various pieces of the framework, while also offering examples of advanced features that showcase the capabilities of the framework.

We describe an approach to Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) that is effective at making use of models trained on large amounts of weakly supervised bitext. We train the Transformer sequence-to-sequence model on 4B tokens of Wikipedia revisions and employ an iterative decoding strategy that is tailored to the loosely-supervised nature of the Wikipedia training corpus. Finetuning on the Lang-8 corpus and ensembling yields an F0.5 of 58.3 on the CoNLL'14 benchmark and a GLEU of 62.4 on JFLEG. The combination of weakly supervised training and iterative decoding obtains an F0.5 of 48.2 on CoNLL'14 even without using any labeled GEC data.

For decades, context-dependent phonemes have been the dominant sub-word unit for conventional acoustic modeling systems. This status quo has begun to be challenged recently by end-to-end models which seek to combine acoustic, pronunciation, and language model components into a single neural network. Such systems, which typically predict graphemes or words, simplify the recognition process since they remove the need for a separate expert-curated pronunciation lexicon to map from phoneme-based units to words. However, there has been little previous work comparing phoneme-based versus grapheme-based sub-word units in the end-to-end modeling framework, to determine whether the gains from such approaches are primarily due to the new probabilistic model, or from the joint learning of the various components with grapheme-based units. In this work, we conduct detailed experiments which are aimed at quantifying the value of phoneme-based pronunciation lexica in the context of end-to-end models. We examine phoneme-based end-to-end models, which are contrasted against grapheme-based ones on a large vocabulary English Voice-search task, where we find that graphemes do indeed outperform phonemes. We also compare grapheme and phoneme-based approaches on a multi-dialect English task, which once again confirm the superiority of graphemes, greatly simplifying the system for recognizing multiple dialects.

Recurrent neural network (RNN) language models (LMs) and Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) LMs, a variant of RNN LMs, have been shown to outperform traditional N-gram LMs on speech recognition tasks. However, these models are computationally more expensive than N-gram LMs for decoding, and thus, challenging to integrate into speech recognizers. Recent research has proposed the use of lattice-rescoring algorithms using RNNLMs and LSTMLMs as an efficient strategy to integrate these models into a speech recognition system. In this paper, we evaluate existing lattice rescoring algorithms along with new variants on a YouTube speech recognition task. Lattice rescoring using LSTMLMs reduces the word error rate (WER) for this task by 8\% relative to the WER obtained using an N-gram LM., Comment: Accepted at ASRU 2017

We present NN-grams, a novel, hybrid language model integrating n-grams and neural networks (NN) for speech recognition. The model takes as input both word histories as well as n-gram counts. Thus, it combines the memorization capacity and scalability of an n-gram model with the generalization ability of neural networks. We report experiments where the model is trained on 26B words. NN-grams are efficient at run-time since they do not include an output soft-max layer. The model is trained using noise contrastive estimation (NCE), an approach that transforms the estimation problem of neural networks into one of binary classification between data samples and noise samples. We present results with noise samples derived from either an n-gram distribution or from speech recognition lattices. NN-grams outperforms an n-gram model on an Italian speech recognition dictation task., Comment: To be published in the proceedings of INTERSPEECH 2016

Open domain relation extraction systems identify relation and argument phrases in a sentence without relying on any underlying schema. However, current state-of-the-art relation extraction systems are available only for English because of their heavy reliance on linguistic tools such as part-of-speech taggers and dependency parsers. We present a cross-lingual annotation projection method for language independent relation extraction. We evaluate our method on a manually annotated test set and present results on three typologically different languages. We release these manual annotations and extracted relations in 61 languages from Wikipedia., Comment: Proceedings of NAACL 2015

Large language models have been proven quite beneficial for a variety of automatic speech recognition tasks in Google. We summarize results on Voice Search and a few YouTube speech transcription tasks to highlight the impact that one can expect from increasing both the amount of training data, and the size of the language model estimated from such data. Depending on the task, availability and amount of training data used, language model size and amount of work and care put into integrating them in the lattice rescoring step we observe reductions in word error rate between 6% and 10% relative, for systems on a wide range of operating points between 17% and 52% word error rate.