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Cleaner and sustainable water production lead to the development of environmentally friendly adsorbent materials for energy-efficient, cost-effective, and cleaner water production. In this study, the biochar derived from the rice husk, wheat straw, and corncob has been used for the adsorptive removal of heavy metals, including the lead (Pb+2) and cadmium (Cd+2). The synthesised biochar was characterised by a different structural and analytical approach. The characterisation of biochar revealed the existence of the combined redox, i.e. reductive and oxidative surface functional groups along with some inert functional groups which play a significant role in donating or accepting an electron to degrade the pollutants in the wastewater. The biochar synthesised in this study was found to be amorphous, and some negligible disorders and defects have been observed in the structure of biochar. The biochar has been highly stable under harsh thermal conditions by sustaining significant weight over a temperature of 700 ​°C and also be hygroscopic. The biochar rice husk, wheat straw, and corncob demonstrated the lead (Pb+2) adsorption capacity of 96.41%, 95.38%, and 96.92%, while for cadmium (Cd+2), the uptake capacity was found to be 94.73%, 93.68%, and 95.78%. The reported biochar is a cleaner, environmentally friendly, economical, and sustainable alternative to conventional adsorbent materials.

The farinograph and mixograph are the most commonly used empirical instruments to determine three parameters: 1) characterize dough rheology; 2) evaluate dough performance during processing; 3) and quality control. Maize, chickpea, and soybean flours ranging from 10% to 50% (in 10% increments) were blended with wheat flour to prepare composite flours for rheological studies. Mixographic results indicated that as flour percentages increased among treatments, peak times and mixing tolerance indices increased. Farinographic results indicated that as flour percentages increased, an increase in water absorption with a concurrent decrease in development and dough stability times due to less gluten content occurred.

A high amount of sugar is used in bakery products, which may cause diabetes, high blood glucose levels and obesity. Due to these reasons, sugar is being replaced with substitutes. There is different carbohydrate-based sugar substitutes (polyols) that can efficiently replace sugar. Among polyols, sorbitol is an efficient replacer that can mimic sugar with minimal effects on cookie quality. Effects of different sorbitol levels (0 to 12.5%) were seen on the dough rheology. Mixographic studies showed that peak height and mixing time reduced with the addition of sorbitol. Farinographic studies showed that water absorption and the mixing tolerance index of dough reduced with the supplementation of sorbitol, whereas dough development time, arrival time, dough stability time and softening of dough increased. Extensographic studies revealed that sorbitol substitution produced hard, cohesive, adhesive and elastic dough. Sugar in cookies formulations was reduced from 100 to 50% by replacing with sorbitol 0 to 50%. Physical analysis of sorbitol containing cookies showed that the diameter and spread factor of cookies decreased with higher levels of sorbitol, whereas thickness, color, hardness and water activity of cookies increased. The calorific value of cookies decreased with the increasing levels of sorbitol. At upto 20% replacement of sugar, other parameters of cookies were not affected. Sensory evaluation of the cookies showed that hedonic points for sensory evaluation parameters reduced with the increasing levels of sorbitol, T2 (20% replacement) showed maximum overall acceptability.

Food scientist are actively involved to improve the quality of wheat through composite flour technology by supplementing wheat flour with other grain flours. Barley grains are outstanding source of total dietary fibers (TDF) and offers remarkable quantity of active ingredients for health elevation and disease prevention. Purposely, the current research work was designed to improve the nutritional potential of wheat chapattis by including barley flour 10%, 20%, 30% along with the addition of functional blend (Methi powder and garlic paste) 2%, 4%, 6% levels respectively. Wheat and barley composite flour were analyzed for its chemical, mineral, antioxidant and total dietary composition. The supplementation of barley flour and functional blend into wheat flour enhanced the mineral. Addition of barley flour and functional blend increased total phenolic in composite flour 0.41 (control) to 0.69 mg GAE.100g-1 and DPPH from 20.95 - 23.82%. Total dietary fiber in composite flour varied form 3.11% (control) to 7.69% (30% barley flour with 6% functional blend). Total dietary fiber in chapattis ranged from 6.04 (control) to 8.21% (30% barley flour with 6% functional blend). 30% supplementation of barley flour and 4% addition of functional blend presented better sensory response of the prepared chapattis. All the outcomes revealed that nutritionally rich chapattis should be incorporated in daily diet to explore the dietary worth of barley.

A carbohydrate based fat replacer is the most important constituent used in a large range of bakery products. It exactly minimizes the role of butter, margarine and fat. It also plays a major role in the reduction of obesity. Carbohydrate based fat replacers also effect in terms of physical and chemical properties. The present study was designed to reveal the combined potential of pectin and banana powder as carbohydrate based fat replacers in cookies. The flour was characterized for a proximate analysis (moisture, fat, fiber, protein, ash and NFE). Moreover, carbohydrate based fat replacers (pectin and banana powder) were mixed with flour at different levels (0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%). Fat replacers of different flour containing levels were studied for rheological properties (farinographic) and were used in baked products such as cookies for enhancing their quality characteristics. Moreover, physical and chemical analyses were carried out. Furthermore, the sensory evaluation of cookies was also carried out. The obtained data from each parameter were subjected to an appropriate statistical analysis for determining the level of significance. The results showed that the content of crude fat was 29.82% in the controlled cookies. The fat content was reduced from 29.82% to 17.07% for T3 by using carbohydrate based fat replacers. The current study revealed that the treatment with T3 better attributes to physical, chemical and rheological properties. The results further affirmed that the cookies prepared from wheat flour from 15% supplementation of carbohydrate based fat replacers showed better attributes regarding color and texture and were declared the best by the panelists

Biodiesel by non-edible oils via ultrasonic cavitational technique offers a unique and novel approach towards waste management. This study aims to synthesis biodiesel from two non-edible sources namely; Salvadora alii oil and Thespesia populneoides oil. Transesterification was carried out in the presence of solid base calcium oxide catalyst while using an ultrasonic cavitation (UC) reactor. Parametric optimisation was conducted by central composite design and response surface methodology. Results revealed that optimum condition to obtain maximum yield (≈92 wt %) of Salvadora alii methyl ester was as; molar ratio = 10:1 (alcohol: oil), catalyst amount = 3 wt %, and amplitude = 50% in 30 min of reaction time. Similarly, optimum condition was found satisfactory to render maximum yield (≈88.6 wt %) of Thespesia populenoides methyl ester as molar ratio = 6:1 (alcohol: oil), catalyst amount = 3.5 wt %, and amplitude = 45% in 30 min of reaction time. At obtained optimised values UC was compared with mechanical stirring (MS). UC showed 3 fold higher reaction constants and 3 fold more time efficiency than MS. The superiority of UC over MS can be established. Biomass waste to biofuel can make biodiesel synthesis towards cleaner fuel. These results suggest that combination of non-edible oils and UC technology have the potential to make cleaner process. Most of the fuel properties were met the EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751 standards.

Wheat flour is staple diet and is mainly consumed in the form of chapatti and bread in Pakistan. Wheat is deficient in lysine which is the first limiting amino acid in wheat. Proteins are indispensable constituents of human diet and are considered crucial for the growth, maintenance and repair of the body tissues. They are one of the essential building blocks of all life. The objective of this study was to prepare the composite flour by blending straight grade flour with oyster mushroom powder (OMP) in different proportions for the baking of bread. The flour was also evaluated for rheological properties. The supplemented bread was subjected to sensory evaluation and physical analysis by Farinograph measurements of the following characteristics affected by mushroom powder: water absorption, dough development time, softening of dough, dough stability and mixing tolerance index. Results showed that OMP increased water absorption capacity of dough with highest absorption recorded in T5 (66.4%) and minimum in T0 (56.4%). Dough development time increased with the increasing amount of OMP. It was minimum in T0 (1.5 min) and maximum in T5 (4.6 min). The capacity of dough to get soft also increased with increasing treatment level. Dough stability also decreased with increasing level of OMP. Mixing tolerance index was also significantly affected by OMP. Results of amylograph indicated that peak viscosity increased from 1595 to 1700 BU from T1 (3% mushroom powder) to T5 (15% mushroom powder) with the increase of OMP.

Biodiesel is envisaged as environmentally benign fuel due to its unique properties, such as biodegradability, renewability and non-toxicity. Its utilisation leads to the reduction of sulphur oxide and greenhouse gas emissions as it produces quite lower amounts of carbon and sulphur based gases in comparison to conventional fossil fuels. This paper is a review of the recent achievements of the cleaner intensification technologies for biodiesel production. Merits and limitations of the cleaner intensification technologies have been discussed. Mechanical stirring via transesterification is the most common and extensively utilised for biodiesel production. It involves the conversion of oil to glycerol and acid alkyl ester while employing methanol. However, this process has an inherent drawback of mass transfer resistance resulting in a lower reaction rate and higher production cost. Intensification technologies have become more attractive to overcome these aforementioned problems. In a bid to increase the cost competitiveness of biodiesel production compared to diesel fuel, process intensification has been studied for numerous biodiesel processing technologies. Many researchers have resorted to several intensification technologies namely; microwave, ultrasonic cavitation and hydrodynamic cavitation reactor to eliminate the mass transfer resistance of immiscible reactants. Once the mass transfer resistance is reduced, it may lead to a shorter reaction time and lower energy consumptions compared to mechanical stirring. Recent studies reveal that microwave and ultrasonic cavitation techniques are not yet completely feasible for biodiesel production at industrial scale. On the other hand, it was found that hydrodynamic cavitation offers a number of advantages over other intensification technologies. It shows good performance with respect to product yield, reaction time, energy consumption and product quality. Furthermore, it exhibits a sustainable mean for energy recovery from renewable oils. It was concluded that more studies are needed to extend the existing information of hydrodynamic cavitation for the design of the plate geometry with respect to the methyl ester conversion. This will help to develop a sustainable and industrially viable route for energy recovery from renewable oils. Yield efficiency in relation to the method followed the order: hydrodynamic cavitation > microwave > ultrasonic cavitation > mechanical stirring.

The ubiquitous indulging of cereals and legumes all over the world gives them a momentous abode in international nutrition. The exploration of food component plays dominating ole in the nutritional assessment, shelf life and the inclusive acceptance by the end user. Maize, chickpea and soybean flours were blended uniformly @ 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50% levels with wheat flour to prepared different compositions and stored at ambient temperature in polyethylene bags. During the fortnightly storage period of 45 days, each treatment was assessed for moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, ash, nitrogen free extract, acidity, peroxide value and mold count. Mean squares of chemical analysis revealed significant differences due to different flour compositions and storage intervals. There was a slight increase in moisture content, total acidity, peroxide value and mold count of the composite flours whereas a decrease in protein, fiber, fat and nitrogen free extract during storage. Ash showed non-significant effect during storage. It is concluded that vacillations in temperature, relative humidity, storage circumstances, length of storage time, storage material as well as enzymatic activity made considerable nutrient losses in cereals-legumes blended flours.

Cheese whey is greenish yellow liquid separated during cheese processing. It accounts 80-90% of milk after cheese processing. It is usually wasted by cheese industries, particularly in developing countries like Pakistan that increases BOD and COD of dairy effluent. Various useful components like lactose, proteins, minerals etc. are present in whey. Among proteins, whey proteins are very effective in body muscle anabolism along with other health benefits. Present research utilized whey proteins in the form of protein supplement. Whey protein was precipitated by combination of pH, temperature and salt treatment followed by filtration. Two types of whey protein concentrates (WPCs) were formed. One was creamy textured while the other was in powder form. WPCs were added in broiler feed at the rate of 0.2% in powder form and 2% in the creamy texture form. Growth parameters like feed consumption, body weight and weight gain increased with whey protein supplement while had no effect on feed conversion ratio (FCR). Carcass traits like carcass, breast, thigh, wings, drumstick weight had significantly increased with the incorporation of whey protein while having non-significant effect on liver weight, GIT weight and GIT/carcass ratio. Whey protein supplementation exhibit no significant influence on packed cell volume (PCV), hemoglobin, lymphocytes and polymorphnuclear leukocyte (PMN) while exhibit significant impact on leukocytes and platelets. It is concluded that only 0.2% WPC (powder) exhibit significant impact on carcass growth while 2% WPC (creamy texture) supplementation improved the growth parameters but statistical analysis revealed it non-significant.

Producing sustainable biodiesel using non-edible feedstock via transesterification reaction assisted hydrodynamic cavitation technology is a viable way to offset fossil diesel usage. This technology has affirmative environmental impacts with lower energy consumption and the reaction time and offers a cleaner possibility. Methyl ester conversion has been observed at a different inlet pressure of 1–3.5 bar on different plate geometries in 50 L pilot hydrodynamic cavitation reactor. Orifice plate with 21 holes of 1 mm and inlet pressure of 3 bar found to be the optimal arrangement. Parametric optimisation used response surface methodology and found as alcohol to oil ratio of 6:1, catalyst loading of 1 wt.%, reaction time of 18 min and reaction temperature of 55 °C. About 5 fold shorter reaction time, 6.5 fold higher energy efficiency and 4.9 fold higher reaction rate constant using hydrodynamic cavitation compared to mechanical stirring. Hydrodynamic cavitation is concluded to be time saving and energy efficient process compared to mechanical stirring. This makes the process more environmental friendly using hydrodynamic cavitation. Most of the properties in rubber seed oil methyl ester were met the EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751 standards.

Commercial corn and wheat products were obtained and investigated for, proximate composition, mineral composition and tocopherol content. Proximate composition shows moisture content in the range of 28.75-2.75%, ash (2.70-0.32%), fats (21.52 -0.75%), protein (11.54-0.940%), crude fiber (4.06-0.250%) and carbohydrates (85.80-55.96%). The data indicate that Commercial corn and wheat products vary greatly in term of protein, fats and crude fiber. White flour and whole wheat flour were determined to contain high protein content (>10% protein) while oil popped popcorn and biscuit contain high fats content of >20%. In minerals the level of iron is 9.56-51.21mg/kg, Ca (50-560 mg/kg), Zn (1.90-32.40 mg/kg), K (820-2946) and Mg (310-1512 mg/kg). Tocopherol analysis was also done by the HPLC and found that Alpha tocopherol showed higher concentration than gamma and sigma tocopherol. In tocopherols level of alpha tocopherol is 0.3385-7.135 mg/100g, Gamma tocopherol (0.000212-9.665 mg/100g)Sigmmatocopherol (0.00212-1.685 mg/100g).

A number of plants and plant products have medicinal properties that have been validated by recent scientific developments throughout the world, owing to their potent pharmacological activity, low toxicity and economic viability. In recent years, the use of natural antioxidants present in traditional medicinal plants has become of special interest in the scientific world due to their presumed safety and nutritional and therapeutic value. In this present study, comparative phenolic compounds in traditional Bulgarian medical plants. The medical plants were analyzed for their tannins content by titrimetric method; rutin was determined spectrophotometrically by using ammonium molybdate; the total phenolics content was determined by using Folin-Ciocalteu assay and the total flavonoids were used the colorimetric reaction with aluminum (III) chloride. The present paper shown by the results of total phenolic and total flavonoid contents, and rutin and tannins in medical plants that they must be relatively safe for the patient.

Physiochemical properties of biodiesel, a sustainable and green alternative fuel produced from renewable resources, are greatly influenced by the structural features of polyunsaturated, monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids. Two feedstock oils, potentially contribution to cleaner technologies, refined cooking oil and waste cooking oil derived from palm olein have been studied. Fatty acid compositions of the refined cooking oil and waste cooking oil were analysed and confronted with other literature sources. Critical parameters such as cetane number (CN), iodine value, cold filter plugging point (CFPP) and oxidation stability (OS) were correlated with long-chain saturated factor and degree of unsaturation (DU) of fatty acid to match the international standards of cleaner biodiesel. OS in biodiesel has been met with the absence of linolenic acid. High saturated fatty acid provides high CN. The iodine value of feedstock oil met the European standard where the DU of the oils was less than 138. However, CFPP of refined cooking oil and waste cooking oil did not meet the demanding Spanish regional (RD 61/2006) standard due to the presence of stearic and palmitic acid, which tended to clog the fuel filter by precipitating while the biodiesel becomes cool. With the proposed triangular chart for biodiesel properties prediction, potential biodiesel fuels from various feedstock oils can be analysed.

This study examines how environmental concerns impact the connectivity amid formal, informal control and performance based on data gathered from different 156 construction companies. The empirical outcomes illustrate that behaviour, outcome relationship between variables and clan control affirmatively affect performance on construction projects. However, self-control is unimportantly identified with project execution. This research uncovers that in construction projects, the adequacy of managerial control varies. The results further suggest that interior environmental concerns contrarily moderate the consequence of control of cleaner merchandise enactment during projects. However, external natural hazards emphatically direct the adequacy of project control, showing noteworthy and assorted roles played by different ecological dangers in the assembly of control and project execution. The interactive empirical outcomes between formal control and external environmental hazards are significantly related to project performance(t > 2, and p 0.05). The study concluded the least significant of all controller means towards the enactment of construction projects. Results showed that for complex projects, operative control approaches should be prioritised over ineffective control methods.

Physical properties, namely, density and refractive index of the ternary mixture consisting of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate + monoethanolamine + water have been measured at temperature range from (303.15 to 353.15) K. The measured density and refractive index data were correlated as a function of concentration and temperature. The excess properties (excess molar volume and excess refractive indices) have been deduced from the experimental physical properties.

The densities and refractive indices of ternary system of bis(2-hydroxyethyl)ammonium acetate ([bheaa]) + monoethanolamine + water have been measured at T = (303.15 to 353.15) K. The measured density and refractive index data were correlated as a function of concentration and temperature. Excess molar volumes and refractive index deviations were calculated from the measured densities and refractive indices at each temperature. The excess molar volumes are negative and the refractive index deviations are positive at all conditions.

Binary mixtures of 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate [hmim][BF4] with N-methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) were prepared. Physical properties namely, density ρ, dynamic viscosity η and refractive index nD, of the binary mixtures were measured over a temperature range of 303.15 K to 323.15 K. The measured density and refractive index data were correlated as a function of concentration and temperature. Excess molar volumes VE were deduced from the experimental data. Excess molar volumes showed positive deviations over the entire range of concentrations and temperatures indicating a weak interaction between [hmim][BF4] and MDEA. Viscosity data for the binary mixtures were correlated by using the Kendall–Monroe model.