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This study set out to compare the use of intonation by mothers and their young children. The question of ways in which a mother might influence the development of her child's intonation is considered. Detailed analysis of maternal intonation enables an explanation to be offered of the diverse conclusions in the literature about how children use intonation in early speech. Two mother-child pairs were studied in free-play, over a combined age range of 15-28 months. Intonation forms were related to the functions of utterances for both mother and child and the mother's responses to her child's intonation forms were studied. An utterance function category system and an intonation form category system were devised to carry out the analyses. The mother's intonation was not found to be a constant and differentiated indicator of utterance function. It varied widely within functions though displaying a certain specificity of form use that was common to both mothers. The intonation of the children was found to closely match the mothers in use of form and it varied in the same manner in relation to utterance function. There was much similarity between the two children. Mothers did not respond to the intonation of the child as if it were being used as a simple differentiator of utterance function. The systematic variability of the intonation was such that analysis of the influence of the mother's use on that of the child was made difficult. Conversely, it was possible to demonstrate that each of the children was at least partly responsible for his or her organisation of intonation, the two children being very alike in this respect. It is suggested that the children's development of intonation can be seen to reflect both an innately organised communicative system and the influence of the intonation environment provided by the mother's speech. The results of this study do not support any one of the diverse conclusions previously reported on the young child's use of intonation, but provide an explanation of most. The explanation is found not in the influence of individual differences in the mother's intonation,but in the way in which the mothers use intonation in speech, revealing a previously unspecified perspective against which to consider the child's intonation. Intonation is seen to be but one element in an integrated expressive code that both mother and child are competent to use.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of using universal design for learning (UDL) on the acquisition of photography profession skills in a vocational programme for students with intellectual disability (SID) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The study has also sought to discover the effectiveness of this method for integrating the SID with students of non-special educational needs (SNSEN) (or non-SEN) in the same classroom. Moreover, this study has explored the advantages, drawbacks and the challenges associated with the implementation of the UDL method in the classroom from the teachers' perspective. That this study took place in girls' secondary schools in mixed ability classrooms. that 24 numbers of students and 16 teachers took part, that data was collected by questionnaire, lists of observations, open questions, and pre- and post-testing. The first stage was to investigate the teachers' opinions by using the questionnaire and open questions, after training the teachers in how to apply the UDL, to teach SNSEN and SID in the same classroom. This stage also sought to learn the effects of UDL on integrating the SID with SNSEN students. The second stage explored the effect of the UDL on the teaching of professional photography skills for the SID in KSA. To achieve this goal the observation lists and pre- and post-tests were used to compare the learning performance of the SID which used the UDL in experiment groups, with the performance of the SID that used the usual, traditional strategies of learning in control groups. The results of the research were analysed using a Mann-Whitney U Test, as well as various descriptive statistics. The findings indicate that there was a statistically significant difference between the control and experimental groups in the pre- and post-tests, where the students who used UDL to learn photography developed more quickly than those in the control group. As well as this, the opinions of teachers confirmed that the use of UDL is beneficial in helping with the inclusion of the SID and SNSEN in the same classroom. The findings further revealed the teachers' opinions on the advantages, drawbacks and obstacles to the application of UDL. The study has significantly added to our understanding of the contribution that UDL can make in developing professional skills for SID. The findings advance the current literature in the area of special education needs, particularly in respect of promoting the inclusion of students of intellectual disability within the same classroom as their non-SEN peers.

There are many informative books on the practice of yoga suggesting that yoga can bring benefits to the well-being of people on the autistic spectrum (Betts et al 2006, Cuomo 2007, Williams 2010, Goldberg 2013, Thornton-Hardy 2015). There is less empirical evidence to back up the claims made in these books. This longitudinal study observed six residential pupils, aged eleven to seventeen, with profound autism and accompanying learning difficulties, participating in a thirty minute yoga programme which was conducted four days a week for one year in a comfortable, quiet environment. Its purpose was to ascertain if yoga could influence physicality, communication, attention, motor planning, organisation and mood and if this was positive could the changes be sustained and generalised into daily activities. After baseline information was gathered, data was collected using a variety of specially designed forms. The Researcher led each session, modelling the poses and observing the pupils as they copied her. Data was also collected from the Education Team and Support Workers with parents contributing to the data collection each time they visited school or when the pupils went home. Using a descriptive case study approach, the data followed the progress of each pupil during yoga and for two hours after yoga, plotting changes over the year. The data was analysed qualitatively and where appropriate, quantitatively. Results showed that pupils increased in flexibility and strength, improved their balance, bilateral integration and symmetry. An increase in the pupils` use of appropriate short phrases was noted, episodes of joint attention increased as did use of greetings and one pupil began vocalising intentionally. The data showed a small increase in attention, motor planning and organisational skills out with yoga, indicating some generalisation had taken place. By the end of the programme, the pupils appeared less anxious and stressed and more confident. A striking result was a 'stillness' which replaced constant fidgeting by the pupils. This study suggests reasons why yoga is a positive intervention in autism and adds weight to the positive results of the other existing studies. The consistent practice of asanas allows flexibility to develop and the improvement in bilateral integration allows symmetry to increase. The asanas seem to calm a stressed nervous system allowing a `stillness` to evolve, making listening and concentration easier to achieve and maintain. This could lead to the pupils being more ready to learn. Autism appears amenable to this kind of intervention and yoga may prove to be an important tool in our autism tool kit.