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This study aimed to investigate the cost-benefit per hectare of rice production in the haor region in Bangladesh. For doing so, the multi-stage sampling technique was used to collect cross-sectional data during 2018 from four haor districts producing rice in Bangladesh. To achieve the purpose, a total of 368 randomly selected farming households from Habiganj, Sunamganj, Moulvibazar, and Sylhet districts were surveyed using a structured questionnaire. Data analysis was done utilizing descriptive statistics and cost and return analysis. The result revealed that labor costs constituted the largest proportion of gross operating expenses, followed by fertilizer, irrigation, tillage, insecticides and herbicides, and threshing cost. The cost-benefit analysis finding also shows that rice is a profitable enterprise in the haor areas as the lower production cost compared to return. Because of the amount of input used and the price of output, the profitability differs between different seasons, however. The model shows that cost of seed, human labor cost, cost of TSP, cost of MoP, and cost of irrigation were the key factors that influenced rice production. This study also identified some of the problems related to rice production in haor areas. Lower output price, higher input price, unavailability of short growth duration high yielding varieties, and embankment damages, etc., are key obstacles to rice production. Therefore, this study provides the government's concerned authority with appropriate suggestions and policy recommendations to solve the farmers' issues that could boost rice productivity in the haor areas and contribute to food security and self-sufficiency in rice cultivation.

Rice availability and affordability are the key determinants of food security in Bangladesh. Therefore, it becomes the most important crop for the social and political economy of the country. Although a tremendous technological advancement contributed to the increasing trend of rice production, its affordability threatened due to the increasing price at the consumers’ level. The recent natural calamities and COVID-19 have worsened the food security status across the world. This research has estimated the demand and supply of rice in the pandemic era and figured out the drivers of recent price hike both in the producers’ and consumers’ levels using empirical and cognitive approaches. Based on the findings, some actionable policy options have been suggested to address the price level of rice in Bangladesh towards sustaining food security.

Fishery sector plays a vital role in the socio-economic development of Bangladesh. In the fish economy of Bangladesh, one of the most flourishing traffic activities is fish marketing. This study was aimed to investigate the fish species availability, supply chain, quality loss, price behavior and constrains associated with fish marketing in order to provide better suggestion for efficient fish marketing in Jamalpur district of Bangladesh. Data were collected form Sadar upazila markets by using a structured interview schedule, focus group discussions (FGD) and key informant interviews (KII) with the stakeholders involved in supplying fish from farm to fork, such as- aratdars, retailers, and consumers during 2020-21. A total 78 fish species were found (72 Fresh water and 2 Marine water), among them 20 frequently, 17 less amount, 25 occasionally, and 16 species were rarely available in the market. It was estimated that 72% fish species were sourced from culture fishery whereas 28% were from capture fishery. About 91.5% fishes in Jamalpur markets were supplied locally, whereas rests were from other districts. The post-harvest quality losses of fish in the sampled markets were assessed which indicate that small indigenous species (SIS) spoiled quicker than medium to large sizes fishes due to different factors. The price behavior of the fish market influenced by the demand of the fish species, quality, size, catching sources (culture fishery or capture fishery) and the purchasing time (beginning, middle or last time of market). The study found positive correlation between the market price and fish quality. Several problems of fish market were identified resulting consumer dissatisfaction and financial losses for fish traders. Considering the importance of fish market to the economy, this study suggested to take necessary steps for establishing modern fish market to ensure the adequate quality maintenance of fish with efficient marketing.

The structure of co-integration, the pace of adjustment, and the causal markets are investigated using horizontal price integration among five main rice markets in Bangladesh. The null hypotheses were tested using Johansen and Juselius co-integration test and vector error correction model. In Bangladesh, wholesale price volatility in the rice sector has been rising over time. The findings of the study revealed that the rice markets in Bangladesh are perfectly cointegrated. The leading rice markets are Chattagram and Rajshahi, while Khulna is the price taker, which adjusts prices with all other rice markets. Any price shock in the Chattagram and Rajshahi markets takes one to two months for other markets to adjust. The findings also illustrate the value of steering policy efforts in Bangladesh rice markets toward reducing price instability and improving pricing efficiency.

Built on deep-rooted political and cultural heritage, ‘rice security’ is the foundation of ‘food security’ in Bangladesh. The country has been in production-surplus of rice in the current decade feeding over 165 million people. This on-going ‘selfsufficiency momentum’ would require to maintain to meet increased demand from growing future population. On developmental side, Bangladesh is placed among the three of the world’s fastest growing economies in the years through to 2050. Rice sector would need to match with the pace of this growth. In addition, agriculture sector, that includes rice, is to double the productivity as the government commits to meet the SDG goal 2.3.1. This study addresses those issues through scoping increased rice production and productivity in Bangladesh, developing a plan of work (POW) on translating the scope and designing implementation plans and actions, incorporating efficiency, resilience, stability and sustainability issues, to achieve the POW. The study has used brainstorming, and rigorous analysis to achieve the objectives. The productivity has been explained in terms of yield- and labour-productivity. The developed three-winged ‘doubling rice productivity (DRP)’ framework directs yield enhancement and production accumulation in unexplored spaces (Wing-1); increased adoption of mechanization to impact on labour productivity (Wing-2), and improvements in nutritional quality and rice-based product diversity, and stabilizing the farmgate price (Wing-3). Analyses show, from the baseline figure of 35.29 MT in 2015, rice production in the country can be raised to 46.90 MT in 2030, 54.09 MT in 2040 and 60.85 MT in 2050 with combined contributions of three pillars – yield improvements by enhanced varietal potential (Pillar 1), reduction in existing yield gap (Pillar 2) and production increase by exploring unexplored spaces for rice (Pillar 3) of Wing-1 of the DRP. This production will produce a surplus of 6.50, 10.29 and 13.65 MT in 2030, 2040 and 2050, respectively, over the production target (40.40, 43.80 and 47.20 MT in 2030 and 2050, respectively). Results further reveal that through scale-appropriate mechanization backed up by estimated fair price, labour productivity in rice will be doubled by 2029, meeting the SDG 2.3.1. Good number of released varieties have been identified to have specific nutritional trait, and value adding quality. We have emphasized on much needed actions on demand-driven research for varietal development and field-adoptable management, mechanization for transplanting and harvesting operations, accommodation of rice in unexplored spaces, farmer-based speedy seed multiplication and dissemination system, establishment of commission for agricultural costs and prices, input buffer stock terminals for managing production risk, long-term storage and export of surplus production, and research-publicity-market development for rice-based products through public-private partnership. It is concluded that efficiency, resilience and sustainability around the three wings of DRP in the rice production systems to be ensured to achieve the rice production, productivity and labour use estimates. Bangladesh Rice J. 24 (2): 1-47, 2021

Using cross-sectional data obtained through carrying out a sample survey conducted during 2018, we examined the perception of farmers and millers about the paddy and rice procurement system and its feasibility. A probit model was employed to ascertain the factors influencing the likelihood of participating in the procurement system by farmers from two districts of Bangladesh. The results showed that the government procurement system has significant impacts on both the participant farmers and millers. The farmers and millers' net profit was TK 4,205 and TK 3,930 by selling a ton of paddy and cleaned rice, respectively, to the procurement center rather than in the local market. The probit regression analysis revealed nine different factors that significantly influenced farmers' participation in the paddy procurement programme. Results further implied that educated farmers had procurement cards with sufficient system knowledge, residing near the hub with improved road access, and association with political parties get preference in participating in the programme. The findings also indicate that lucrative prices, programme scheduling and good conduct of procurement employees inspire farmers to participate in the programme. The government procurement programme has several drawbacks such as anomalies in selecting farmers, taking extra paddy by the employees, corruption, unsuitable payment system, and procurement capacity. Therefore, the government would be vigilant to ensure that the procurement system will provide farmers with price support. A well-functioning procurement system is crucial for guaranteeing the country's food security by ensuring a fair price for the producers. Finally, the study proposed some policy guidelines based on the findings to establish a sound paddy and/or rice procurement system in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Rice J. 24 (1): 31-46, 2020

Bangladesh is still meaningfully needful on agriculture, and agriculture has an important connection with climate. Food security of Bangladesh is endangered by climate change. Forecasting future climatic condition is extremely vital for smart agricultural planning and familiarizing to climate change. Rabi (October-November to April-May), is one of the crop seasons of Bangladesh, many crops production depend on precipitation especially rice crops. In this study, we attempted to generate a precipitation map of Bangladesh divided into three phases: past (1970-2000), present (2000-2018), and future (2040-2060 or 2050) for January to April by forecasted precipitation results from GCMs of CMIP5 and CMIP6 and figure out possible change of precipitation. To assemble and analyze climate data and generate precipitation maps for January to April, we use GIS techniques such as raster statistics, raster extraction, and zonal statistics. In all month’s precipitation will be increased in compare to present condition, except April month. Like the present situation in 2050 eastern side of Bangladesh will have the highest precipitation area and the lowest precipitation area will be the north-western side of Bangladesh.

This study determines the causes of consumption, compensated, and uncompensated demand for rice using the Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System (LA-AIDS) model in Bangladesh. The model was used along with the corrected Stone Price Index. The study’s findings showed that the income elasticity of demand for rice was only 0.76, indicating that rice is a normal and necessary food item. The own-price elasticity (compensated and uncompensated) showed that all food items were price inelastic. The rice’s own-price elasticity demonstrated that if the price falls by 10%, rice demand will rise by 8.21%. This cross-price elasticity showed the weak substitution effects of a price change. Therefore, price interference may not lead to a substantial effect on food demand.

Bangladesh has made tremendous strides in the development of modern rice varieties as well as boosting domestic rice production up. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the performance, identify the criteria and constraints, as well as find out the drivers influencing the adoption and intensity of adoption of BRRI developed modern rice cultivars in Boro season. A total of 780 randomly selected farmers were interviewed using a structured schedule from 13 upazilas of the Mymensingh district. Descriptive statistics used mainly to evaluate the socio-economic characteristics of farmers as well as the performance of BRRI varieties, and a censored Tobit regression model employed to figure out the drivers of BRRI variety adoption. The results showed that in the Boro season about 85% area of Mymensingh district was covered by BRRI varieties and yielded 5.93 t/ha on average. The outcome of the model indicates that variables such as farmers schooling, farm size, farming experience, training and extension service, demonstration, distance to the nearby market, higher yield capacity, number of cultivated varieties, higher price, and good taste were influential drivers of adopting BRRI variety during the Boro season. This finding recommends that breeders should emphasize the farmers preferences while developing varieties, as well as providing training and field demonstration for spreading newly established BRRI rice varieties. [J Bangladesh Agril Univ 2020; 18(3.000): 660-666]

Northwestern part of Bangladesh plays an important role to supply rice for national food security. However, wet season (WS) rice cultivation in the area is highly vulnerable to moisture stress and severe pest infestation. Therefore, it is very much important to evaluate the adoption situation of wet season rice cultivars and their drivers and drawbacks of adoption in order to delineate the possible ways of rapid dissemination of modern rice varieties to cope with the existing vulnerability and minimize yield gap. Two important wet season rice-growing districts, namely Rangpur and Dinajpur were selected purposively for the study. Focus group discussion (FGD) and key informant interview (KII) were conducted using semi-structured questionnaire to gather qualitative and quantitative data for the study. In addition, structured questionnaire was used in the FGD for generating data on input use patterns, outputs and seasonal variability of yield and price of different rice cultivars for estimating costs and returns. The findings of the study reveal that farmers mainly adopted exotic WS rice cultivars to reduce unexpected yield loss due to abiotic and biotic stresses. Diffusion status of exotic cultivars was ranged between 76-85% of total WS rice area in the study locations. The drivers of widespread diffusion of exotic cultivars are stability in yield performance, compatibility to fit into local cropping systems, potentiality to recover from biotic and abiotic stresses and ensured market demand. However, farmers are dreaming for higher yield potential and more stress tolerant cultivars for fitting into two and three crops-based systems in the areas. Rice breeders may use the findings of this study to develop and disseminate suitable rice cultivars for the northwestern part of the country. Bangladesh Rice j. 2019, 23(1): 81-106

This study assesses the impact of Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) released modern wet (Aman) season rice variety adoption on farmers‟ well-being in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey (BIHS) data collected by IFPRI were used for this study. The study applied difference-in-difference treatment effect and difference-in-difference quantile treatment effect models using unbalanced panel data to achieve the set objectives. Analysis revealed that BRRI released wet (Aman) season rice technology has a robust and positive effect on small farmers‟ welfare in Bangladesh as indicated by the level of increases in per capita household real income, increases in real aman rice income, and also increases in yield and decreases both in poverty gap and squared poverty gap over time. The marginal and near landless farmers have not gained significantly through adopting BRRI released modern variety over non-adopters in terms of all the indicators except aman rice yield. However, only yield of BRRI released modern wet (Aman) season rice technology has positive and significant impact on the marginal and near landless farmers. As such, BRRI variety adoption seemed to be conducive in increasing the level of yield of marginal and near-landless farms but it hardly helps them to overcome the poverty level, unless other equity-enhancing policy measures are undertaken. Overall, there was large scope for enhancing adoption of BRRI released rice variety in order to reduce the poverty level in rural areas. The current rice policy (rice self-sufficiency) appears to be supportive to help Bangladesh rice sector for achieving food security in the country. Bangladesh Rice j. 2019, 23(1): 1-11

Using time-series data, we examined the structural stability and supply response scenario of cereal food production for the last five decades. Analyzes revealed that growth in the area for Aus, Aman, and Boro rice slowed in the period 1971/72-1983/84, but surprisingly the production growth accelerated due to amazing technological advancements and the implementation of government subsidies on complementary inputs. Applying the Nerlovian supply response model, the result showed that, lagged area for Aus, Boro, and wheat was positive and significant, implying that the preceding year area under Aus, Boro, and wheat had a significant influence on land allocation for the following year. The lagged relative yield of Boro and Aus turned out positive implying that in Boro season farmers took into consideration the lagged relative yield of Boro vis-a-vis wheat in the allocation of land for Boro rice and wheat cultivation. The negative price risk variable further implied farmers’ risk aversion response towards price fluctuation. The yield risk variable was found negative for Boro and wheat, implying that this factor did not influence the cultivation of these two crops. Meanwhile, although Bangladesh achieved marginally food security, government and policymakers should focus on stabilizing the market price at harvest time to realize sustainable food security in the future, and researchers should prioritize breaking the yield ceiling as well as developing different stress-tolerant varieties. In the same way, steps should be taken through public and private partnerships to disseminate different crop varieties so that productivity could be enhanced at the desired level.

This study aims to investigate whether Bangladesh has a comparative advantage in producing rice in the long run for the Boro season. With that view, we estimated Domestic Resource Cost (DRC) as an indicator of comparative advantage using the time series data. Data were obtained from the food situation database, published by the Food Planning and Monitoring Unit, Ministry of Food, Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. The analyses show that Bangladesh has a comparative advantage in modern rice production in the Boro season at import substitution. DRC values for Boro season are less than 1 in all the periods (2010/11 to 2019/20) except 2018/19. The sensitivity analysis shows that all the indicators pertinent to this particular analysis strongly influence DRC values. The government and policymakers should focus on price spread between the wholesale to retail levels, the border price of rice at the farm gate level, and the border prices of rice, urea, TSP, and MoP of farm gate level to achieve a long-run comparative advantage. Research efforts need to be prioritized for developing new varieties, especially for the Boro season with higher yield potential. [J Bangladesh Agril Univ 2021; 19(3.000): 361-370]

This study was an attempt to investigate the economic performance of stress tolerant rice varieties in different abiotic stress prone areas (submergence, drought, and salinity) of Bangladesh. The study used production frontier approach to measure the technical efficiency at the farm level. Benefit-cost analysis revealed that farmers in all stress environments obtained positive margin on cash cost basis and the profit became negative on full cost basis in all environments with exception for submergence. That means rice production was marginally benefited to farmers in all the stress environments. Farm specific technical efficiency of all stress environments indicated that large farmers were comparatively more efficient due to their economic solvency as they could apply adequate amount of inputs in due time with proper doses. Inefficiency model indicated that farm size, farmers ‘education, households’ size, farming experience, extension contact, and main occupation of the farmers, were the important factors causing variations in the efficiency. However, BRRI released stress tolerant rice varieties had significant positive impact on technical efficiency. Plausible policies have been recommended according to the study outcomes.

Flood is responsible for the agricultural production scheme and livelihood well-being in Bangladesh. It is the most frequent catastrophe that affects crop production in terms of area coverage and yield. However, a normal flood is beneficial for the ecology and environment. As rice is the most important crop for sustaining the food security of the country, this study identified the threshold level of flooding for rice area coverage and production. The study used the time series data of annual rice area coverage, production, and flooding area in a well-established threshold regression model. The empirical results expose that flooding 22 percent of the geographical area is the threshold value for rice area coverage and production in Bangladesh. Up to the threshold level (22 percent), a one square kilometer increase in flooding would increase the rice area coverage by 31 hectares, as flooding would bring more land under cultivation. Beyond the threshold limit, a one square kilometer increase in flooding would reduce the rice area coverage by 2 hectares. On the other hand, the production of rice would increase by 492 tons with a one square kilometer increase in flooding up to the threshold limit. However, the rice production would reduce by 70 tons if a one square kilometer increase flooding above the threshold limit. On top of that, both the rice area coverage and production showed increasing trends with the increase in flooding level in the last few years. The reasons behind this are- government supports, subsidies, incentives, and stress coping strategies towards accelerating national production to overcome the effects of the flood to sustain national food security; development of stress-tolerant and high yielding modern rice varieties by the research organizations; and replacing the local varieties with these modern varieties by the farmers and extension workers in Bangladesh. [J Bangladesh Agril Univ 2021; 19(2.000): 243-250]

The size of the farm is an important factor that reflects the efficient utilization of resources in farming. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate how the farm size affects the cost efficiency of rice production during the Boro season in Bangladesh. In particular, the analysis aims to estimate the concentration of cost efficiency among the 240 small, medium, and large Boro rice growers sampled in the Dinajpur district. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate the socioeconomic characteristics of rice farmers. A Cobb-Douglas type stochastic cost frontier model was employed to figure out how the rice farmers are cost-efficient. The sociodemographic factors that affect efficient investment in rice production also have been identified. Results of the study show a broad range of cost efficiency scores between 56.65 to 96.40% for the worse to the best rice-growing farmer, respectively with an average efficiency of 84.01%. The findings also show that the mean cost efficiency level of small, medium, and large farmers was 83.30, 85.58, and 94.43%, respectively. The land rental fees, human labor wages, irrigation prices, and pesticide prices are the key factors that contribute to the productivity of rice cultivation. The relatively higher level of cost efficiency among large farmers obviously demonstrates the notion that only large farmers in the study region are investing efficiently in rice growing. Irrespective of the farm size, the cost efficiency drivers found out that more efficient were the farmers who had more experience in farming, obtained training on rice production techniques, and better access to institutional credit. It is therefore recommended that rice farmers should be well trained, provided credit access along with developing rural set-up, and also provide extension services in order to increase the cost efficiency levels in Boro season. [Fundam Appl Agric 2021; 6(1.000): 67-77]

This study was carried out to evaluate the performance of BRRI cultivars, identifying criteria and constraints as well as factors influencing the intensity of BRRI cultivars adoption in Aus season on the farm households in Mymensingh district. The data were collected through structured questionnaires from a total of 390 randomly selected rice farmers from thirteen Upazila of Mymensingh district. The study employed descriptive statistics and Tobit censored regression to determine the adoption and yield status; and adoption intensity determinants. In addition to a total of thirteen FGDs and expert panel interview was conducted to verify the collected data. The results show that 82.04 percent of the area in Mymensingh district was cultivated with rice variety developed by Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) with an average yield of 4.05 t/ha during the Aus season. The findings of the Tobit censored regression indicate that schooling, distance to the local market, training, price variation, taste and preference, amount of cultivated varieties, yield variability were the significant factors of the intensity of BRRI varieties adoption in Aus season. The study's results suggested that breeders should also emphasize the choice of farmers while developing varieties. In addition to developing new rice varieties, BRRI, Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), Bangladesh Agricultural Corporation (BADC) and other seed producing organizations need to work together to provide the farmers with good quality seeds of BRRI varieties, which will increase the total production of the country, thus helping to ensure food safety.

This comparative study was conducted within a selected coastal empoldered area (as saline area) and other selected non-saline districts of Bangladesh, during the period 2011-12 with a view to comparing the profitability and technical efficiency of T. Aman rice growers. The study revealed that T. Aman rice production was found profitable in both of saline and non-saline but the realistic favor the views that economic return is quite in non-saline areas. The returns per taka investment in both study areas were 1.75 and 1.82, respectively. The estimated result showed that the average level of technical efficiencies of the sample farmers were about 70.70% and 87.50% for the saline and non-saline farms, respectively implying that given the existing technology and level of inputs, the output could be increased by 29% and 12%, respectively. Farmer's education and training had positive significant effect on T. Aman rice production. The age of the sampled farmers' had significant positive impact on farming efficiency in the non-saline farms but it was negative on the saline area. The salinity had significant impact on the farming efficiency of T. Aman rice farmers'. The farmers of the non- saline areas were technically more efficient than the saline area which resulted higher net return from T. Aman rice farming. Keywords- Saline & non-saline areas, T. Aman rice, profitability and technical efficiency I. Introduction The arable land in Bangladesh is about 61 percent of the total land area. The total cultivated area was 8.03 million hectares in 2003 but it reduced to 7.73 million hectares in 2008 (BBS 2012) due to urbanization, industrialization and housing for increasing population. The decreasing trend of arable land requires intensive use of land to produce more food for the extra million future generations. Moreover, out of total cultivated areas, 2.75 million ha is single cropped, 3.92 million ha double cropped and 1.28 million ha triple cropped (BBS 2010). The economic development of Bangladesh is inextricably linked with the performance of Agricultural sector. Agriculture provides nearly about 48.1% of her labour forces (BBS 2011). This sector contributes about 20.24% (BBS 2011) to the GDP of the economy as a whole of which crop sector share is about 12%. Rice is the dominating crop sector of agriculture and the largest contributor to farm income of the majority of farm population. However, it is a vital source of non farm income related to trade and commerce of a large segment of the economy. Rice is the most strategic commodity in Bangladesh accounting for 70% calorie intake and about 35% of household expenditure. Out of 7.97 million ha cultivated area, about its 77% devoted to rice (Salam 2012). Rice is being grown in the three seasons namely, Aus, Aman and Boro covering 1.11, 5.65 and 4.77 million ha of land, respectively (BBS 2011). However, the country contains a large area considered as coastal area. The coastal area of Bangladesh represents an area of 47,211 km 2 , 32 percent of the country's geographical area, wherein 35 million people i.e. 28 percent of the country's total population live at 6.85 million households. In terms of administrative consideration, 19 districts out of 64 are considered as coastal district (http://equitybd.org/newsletter/english/Issue-5/Disaster_BD.pdf). Moreover, the coastal area is suffering from salinity problem for rice cultivation. The large farmers cultivated rice-cum-bagda pattern with the saline water. The productivity of rice is very much lower compare to the other areas of the country. Salinity is a problem for livestock's and forestry also. The marginal farmers' preferred cultivate rice to shrimp as there was alternative of fresh water golda with rice. But, they could not as the large farmers were devoted to shrimp culture with saline water. Realizing the negative impact of saline water on environment and society, people as well as the government recently restricted the intrusion of saline water into the empoldered areas. As rice takes the monopoly position in the staple food items of the country and salinity has great impact on rice production and environment, the people of the polder 31 of Khulna district banned the intrusion of saline water and brought more land under the cultivation of T. Aman rice through rice-cum-golda pattern instead of rice-cum-bagda. Due to the restriction of saline water intrusion the soil salinity decreased from previous level (from 29.57 ds/m to 22.06 ds/m). But the land is not free from the salinity effect. The salinity of the concerned area was higher than