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Conflicts often arise when large predators and free-ranging livestock share a common area. Various compensation schemes arc used to attempt solving these conflicts, but the costs of predation to suffering stakeholders arc often unknown. Semi-domesticated reindeer husbandry and large carnivores form one such system, where conflicts between predator conservation and the traditional livelihood are common. We apply an age- and sex-structured reindeer-lichen model to examine the effects of predation on reindeer management. Based on the previous studies we specify age- and sex-class-specific mortalities due to various predators, and study optimal reindeer husbandry under predation pressure and the costs of predation. We show that the costs of predation highly depend on the age-class-specific killing rates of reindeer by various predator species, but not on interest rate or pasture conditions. Regarding species that are more likely to kill adult reindeer in addition to calves, the total predation costs are clearly higher than the net slaughtering value of the predated animals. The decrease in steady-state yearly net income is highest for the gray wolf and lower for other predator species. Adapting to predation pressure includes increasing the size of the reindeer population in winter and changing the slaughtering age of males towards young adults, thus reducing the importance of calf harvesting. This result contrasts with the previous results from stage-structured models that do not fully include time lags related to long-living ungulate species. The costs of predation appear to be much higher in an ex post system than in a territorial compensation system, as in an cx post system herders have not adapted to the predation pressure and must search for the predated reindeer to gain compensations. Our results suggest that co-existence of a viable gray wolf population and profitable reindeer husbandry in the same area is not possible in most cases.

Este artículo tiene dos objetivos centrales. El primero es determinar el desarrollo de sistemas de pagos por rendimiento para trabajadores cubiertos por convenios colectivos de trabajo en las filiales argentinas de empresas multinacionales, en tanto el segundo es analizar la articulación que hay entre los pagos por rendimiento y diferentes variables como país de origen, actividad, año de ingreso al país, tamaño, presencia sindical, afiliación y política gerencial hacia los sindicatos. La elección de estas variables surge de la bibliografía especializada, que las toma como elementos explicativos de los pagos por rendimiento en empresas multinacionales. De esta forma se busca observar en qué medida las relaciones que se establecen en este estudio se acercan a las hipótesis tradicionales sobre la problemática. Para analizar los pagos por rendimiento, se toman como referencia los pagos de salario con adicionales por rendimiento y los sistemas de evaluación de desempeño. El presente estudio se lleva adelante a partir de una encuesta realizada en 83 filiales de empresas multinacionales en Argentina y se utiliza una técnica de análisis estadístico bivariado que permite dar cuenta del tipo de relación que existe entre las variables y categorías consideradas en este estudio., This article has two main objectives. The first is to determine the development of pay-for-performance systems for workers covered by collective bargaining agreements in the Argentine subsidiaries of multinational companies. The second is to analyze the articulation between pay-for-performance and different variables as country of origin, activity, year of entry into the country, size, union presence, level of affiliation and management policy towards the unions. The choice of these variables arises from the specialized bibliography, which takes them as explanatory elements of performance payments in multinational companies. We seek to observe to what extent, the relationships established in this study are close to traditional hypotheses about the problem. To analyze pay-for-performance, salary payments with additional per-performance and performance evaluation systems are taken as reference. The present study is carried out based on a survey of 83 subsidiaries of multinational companies in Argentina. A bivariate statistical analysis technique is used to account for the type of relationship that exists between the variables and the categories considered in this study., Facultad de Ciencias Económicas

Increased use of annual payments to land managers for ecological outcomes indicates a growing interest in exploring the potential of this approach. In this viewpoint, we drew on the experiences of all schemes paying for biodiversity outcomes/results on agricultural land operating in the EU and EFTA countries with the aim of reviewing the decisive elements of the schemes' design and implementation as well as the challenges and opportunities of adopting a results-based approach. We analysed the characteristics of results-based schemes using evidence from peer-reviewed literature, technical reports, scheme practitioners and experts in agri-environment-climate policy. We developed a typology of the schemes and explored critical issues influencing the feasibility and performance of results-based schemes. The evidence to date shows that there are at least 11 advantages to the results-based approach not found in management-based schemes with similar objectives, dealing with environmental efficiency, farmers' participation and development of local biodiversity-based projects. Although results-based approaches have specific challenges at every stage of design and implementation, for many of these the existing schemes provide potential solutions. There is also some apprehension about trying a results-based approach in Mediterranean, central and eastern EU Member States. We conclude that there is clear potential to expand the approach in the European Union for the Rural Development programming period for 2021-2028. Nevertheless, evidence is needed about the approach's efficiency in delivering conservation outcomes in the long term, its additionality, impact on the knowledge and attitudes of land managers and society at large, development of ways of rewarding the achievement of actual results, as well as its potential for stimulating innovative grassroots solutions.

Environmental and Resource Economics, 48 (2), ISSN:0924-6460, ISSN:1573-1502