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We investigated the utility of nuclear and cytoplasmic single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for timber tracking of the intensively logged and commercialized Amazonian tree Jacaranda copaia. Eight hundred and thirty-two trees were sampled (cambium or leaves) from 38 sampling sites in Bolivia, Brazil, French Guiana, and Peru. A total of 128 SNP markers (113 nuclear, 11 chloroplastic, and 4 mitochondrial) were used for genotyping the samples. Bayesian cluster analyses were carried out to group individuals into homogeneous genetic groups for tests to self-assign groups of individuals or individuals to their population of origin. Cluster analysis based on all the SNP markers detected seven main genetic groups. Genetic differentiation was high among populations (0.484) and among genetic groups (0.415), and populations showed a strong isolation-by-distance pattern. Self-assignment testing of the groups of individuals for all loci was able to determine the population origin of all the samples (accuracy = 100%). Self-assignment tests of individuals were able to assign the origin of 94.5%–100% of individuals (accuracy: 91.7%–100%). Our results show that the use of the 128 SNP markers is suitable to correctly determine the origin of J. copaia timber, and they should be considered a useful tool for customs and local and international police.

This Special Issue presents recent advancements in tropical dendrochronology in the tropical and subtropical Americas, focusing on the identification of new species for dendrochronological studies, the assessment of climate information contained in tree-ring records, and systematic reviews of past research. The studies included in this issue significantly contribute to our understanding of tree species suitable for dendrochronology and the improvement of dating techniques. Moreover, they delve into the relationships between climate variables and tree growth, offering insights into the response of tropical forests to environmental change and providing tools for reconstructing past climate conditions. These studies also shed light on the challenges associated with accurately distinguishing annual ring boundaries in tropical species with complex anatomical structures and emphasize the importance of integrating complementary dating methods and visualization techniques to enhance the reliability of dendrochronological studies in the tropics. By synthesizing diverse research findings, this Special Issue offers a comprehensive overview of tropical dendrochronology in the American (sub) tropics, revealing gaps in knowledge, and suggesting potential avenues for future research. Ultimately, these advancements promote a deeper understanding of tropical forests, their role in the global climate system, and the need for their sustainable management and conservation.

Summary Illegal logging and illegal timber trade is a global problem. Anatomical, genetic, and chemical techniques support illegal logging legislation by verifying the species and geographic origin of timber. In principle, these methods can be used to identify timber species and the origin of harvest, however, the availability of specific tests for important timber species is unclear. We review the status of these methods for the top 322 global priority timber taxa. Our results show that for species identification, reference data exist for 100% of taxa using wood anatomy, 86% using genetics, 41% for using DART TOFMS, and 6% using NIRS. For origin identification, data exist for 24% of taxa, with most studies applying genetic approaches (23%). No studies have developed forensic-ready tests for the global priority timber taxa. The review highlights that the current potential for identifying species is greater than for geographic origin and more research focused on determining the geographical origin of timber is required. Based on the current rate, it will take approx. 27 years to generate geographic data for all 322 priority taxa. Finally, we identify research opportunities to improve global timber tracing efforts. Our findings indicate more research is needed, and quickly so that scientific verification can support regulators to combat illegal logging. Keywords

Detailed description of the literature search methods and the results of the searches., Detailed description of the literature search methods and the results of the searches.

Illegal logging and trade of timber are major worldwide concerns, resulting in biodiversity and economic losses. Tropical tree species in the genus Cedrela, which have historically been heavily exploited, are still often illegally traded and there is an urgent need to develop tools to verify the origin of Cedrela products. A set of 351 SNP loci for Cedrela species from Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, French Guiana, Mexico, and Peru was developed using restriction associated DNA sequencing (RADSeq) and low coverage MiSeq genome sequencing, and adapted for MassARRAY genotyping. After screening of 94 individuals covering most of the distribution of Cedrela, a final set of 136 SNP loci which included 92 nuclear SNPs, 22 chloroplast markers (20 SNPs and 2 INDELs), and 22 mitochondrial markers (19 SNPs and 3 INDELs) was selected and tested for potential to verify Cedrela timber origin.

Illegal trade of tropical timber leads to biodiversity and economic losses worldwide. There is a need for forensic tools that allow tracing the origin of timber and verifying compliance with international and national regulations. We evaluated the potential for genetic tracing of Cedrela odorata, one of the most traded neotropical timbers, within Bolivia. Using a set of seven microsatellites (SSRs), we studied the spatial distribution and genetic diversity and tested whether populations show sufficient genetic discrimination for timber tracing at a national level. Cambium and leaves were sampled from 81 C. odorata trees from three sites, at 268–501-km distance. To explore genetic differentiation, Bayesian clustering and principal component analysis (PCA) were employed. To infer the origin of samples, we conducted kernel discriminant analysis (KDA) based on a PCA that included all alleles and a manual assessment of site-unique alleles. The PCA showed three distinct genetic clusters, but only one of them corresponded with one of the sampled sites. The KDA based on allele frequency had a 33.7% mean classification error, with a considerably lower error (8.2%) for the site which matched with one genetic cluster. The blind test on unique alleles led to a similar classification error (30%). The occurrence of multiple genetic clusters within sites suggests that Bolivian C. odorata populations contain several parental lines, resulting in limited potential for forensic tracing at a national level. Based on our findings, we recommend for additional sampling across the spatial range of C. odorata within the country to support the development of forensic techniques for this species.

Illegal trade of tropical timber leads to biodiversity and economic losses worldwide. There is a need for forensic tools that allow tracing the origin of timber and verifying compliance with international and national regulations. We evaluated the potential for genetic tracing of Cedrela odorata, one of the most traded neotropical timbers, within Bolivia. Using a set of seven microsatellites (SSRs), we studied the spatial distribution and genetic diversity and tested whether populations show sufficient genetic discrimination for timber tracing at a national level. Cambium and leaves were sampled from 81 C. odorata trees from three sites, at 268–501-km distance. To explore genetic differentiation, Bayesian clustering and principal component analysis (PCA) were employed. To infer the origin of samples, we conducted kernel discriminant analysis (KDA) based on a PCA that included all alleles and a manual assessment of site-unique alleles. The PCA showed three distinct genetic clusters, but only one of them corresponded with one of the sampled sites. The KDA based on allele frequency had a 33.7% mean classification error, with a considerably lower error (8.2%) for the site which matched with one genetic cluster. The blind test on unique alleles led to a similar classification error (30%). The occurrence of multiple genetic clusters within sites suggests that Bolivian C. odorata populations contain several parental lines, resulting in limited potential for forensic tracing at a national level. Based on our findings, we recommend for additional sampling across the spatial range of C. odorata within the country to support the development of forensic techniques for this species.

Illegal logging is one of the main drivers of species degradation and contributors to global warming. This practice negatively impacts to forest stakeholders at international and local level. Effective control strategies are required to counteract illegal harvesting and trade of tropical timber. Stable isotopes, chemical properties, and DNA are non-manipulative tree characteristics and have the potential to be used for tracing geographical origin. The overall objective of my PhD thesis was to support the implementation of sustainable forest management in Bolivia through developing complementary methods to detect illegal logging.

Combating illegal timber trade requires the ability to identify species and verify geographic origin of timber. Forensic techniques that independently verify the declared species and geographic origin are needed, as current legality procedures are based on certificates and documents that can be falsified. Timber from the genus Cedrela is among the most economically valued tropical timbers worldwide. Three Cedrela species are included in the Appendix III of CITES: C. fissilis, C. odorata and C. angustifolia (listed as C. lilloi). Cedrela timber is currently traded with false origin declarations and under a different species name, but tools to verify this are lacking. We used Direct Analysis in Real Time Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (DART-TOFMS) to chemically identify Cedrela species and sites of origin. Heartwood samples from six Cedrela species (the three CITES-listed species plus C. balansae, C. montana and C. saltensis) were collected at 11 sites throughout Bolivia. Mass spectra detected by DART-TOFMS comprised 1062 compounds; their relative intensities were analysed using Principal Component Analyses, Kernel Discriminant Analysis (KDA) and Random Forest analyses to check discrimination potential among species and sites. Species were identified with a mean discrimination error of 15–19 per cent, with substantial variation in discrimination accuracy among species. The lowest error was observed in C. fissilis (mean = 4.4 per cent). Site discrimination error was considerably higher: 43–54 per cent for C. fissilis and 42–48 per cent for C. odorata. These results provide good prospects to differentiate C. fissilis from other species, but at present there is no scope to do so for other tested species. Thus, discrimination is highly species specific. Our findings for tests of geographic origin suggest no potential to discriminate at the studied scale and for the studied species. Cross-checking results from different methods (KDA and Random Forest) reduced discriminat

Amburana cearensis is an important timber species in tropical lowland dry forests in Bolivia. We used dendrochronological methods to evaluate its climatic sensitivity and to identify its potential for the reconstruction of climate. For that, we collected