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No author version was obtainable for this article., Interventions to promote mental health in the workplace are rapidly gaining acceptability as a means to prevent, screen, treat and effectively manage the growing disease burden of depression and anxiety among working people. The objective of this study was to identify socio-demographic and work setting correlates of poor mental health to consider alongside other evidence in priority setting for workplace mental health promotion (MHP). Multiple logistic regression was used to model the probability of poor mental health (SF-12) in relation to socio-demographic (gender, age, education, marital status and occupational skill level) and employment factors (workplace size and type, industrial sector, employment arrangement and working hours) in a population-based cross-sectional survey of 1051 working Victorians. As a result, poor mental health was (21% prevalence overall) higher in working females than in males and decreased with increasing age. Only one employment factor was significant in demographically adjusted multivariate analyses, showing an increase in the odds of poor mental health with increasing working hours. It is concluded that based on the prevalence of poor mental health, Victorian work settings with high proportions of younger workers, and younger working women in particular, should be prioritized for workplace MHP. Thus, together with other research demonstrating particularly poor psychosocial working conditions for young working women, sectors with an over-representation of this group (e.g. service sector) could be prioritized for workplace MHP alongside young and blue-collar males (also a priority due to low mental healthcare service use)., Australian National Health & Medical Research Council

To examine seasonal variation in hospital use for five paediatric conditions of the Australian Capital Territory residents.Hospital admissions (1993-2004) and emergency room (ER) presentations (1999-2004) for asthma, croup, bronchiolitis, other respiratory conditions and diarrhoea of children aged5 years were compared by month and season.The five conditions comprised 14% of admissions and 24% of ER presentations of children aged5 years. Bronchiolitis (both admissions and ER presentations) were the highest in the 0-1 year age group (80%) and the other four conditions peaked at 1-2 years. Children aged 0-2 years contributed 66% of diarrhoea, 62% of croup and 44% of other respiratory admissions whereas ER presentations were higher for other respiratory conditions (57%) and lower for croup (47%). Boys showed higher rates of admissions and ER presentations for all conditions except diarrhoea. Strong seasonal associations were apparent. Incident rate ratios of admissions were significantly higher in autumn compared with summer for asthma and croup whereas bronchiolitis and other respiratory conditions admissions were the highest in winter. Diarrhoea admissions were the highest in spring. ER presentations of the five conditions also showed similar associations with season.Hospital admissions and ER presentations of these five conditions showed strong seasonal patterns, knowledge of which could contribute to improved resource planning (staffing) to meet expected increases in demand for services and scheduling of elective admissions. These findings could be extended to develop a model for forecasting hospital use and to explore the causes of these diseases to ameliorate seasonal effects.

We investigate one aspect of productivity--sickness absence--and ask whether job insecurity and high work demands are associated with increased sickness absence and, if so, whether mental or physical health mediates this association. We further investigate if having control at work modifies these associations.We used cross-sectional survey data from 2,248 employees aged 40-44 years living in two cities of south-eastern Australia. Logistic regressions were used to compare the associations between job insecurity and demands among those with short (1-3 days) or long-term (3 days) sickness absence with those who had no sickness absence in the last four weeks. The mediating effects of mental and physical health were assessed by evaluating changes in the magnitude of the association between these work conditions and sickness absence.High job insecurity (OR = 3.28; 95% CI 1.54-6.95) and high work demands (OR = 1.62; 95% CI 1.13-2.30) were significantly associated with long-term, but not with short-term, sickness absence. These associations were unaffected by job control. Depression and anxiety explained 61% of the association between high work demands and long-term sickness absence and 30% of the association between job insecurity and long-term sickness absence.Difficult working conditions may reduce productivity by contributing to longer absences from work.Reforms intended to improve economic performance should address any potential health costs of insecurity or intensification, which could inadvertently decrease productivity, possibly through their impact on mental health.

Many children live in families where one or both parents work evenings, nights, or weekends. Do these work schedules affect family relationships or well-being? Using cross-sectional survey data from dual-earner Canadian families (N= 4,306) with children aged 2 – 11 years (N= 6,156), we compared families where parents worked standard weekday times with those where parents worked nonstandard schedules. Parents working nonstandard schedules reported worse family functioning, more depressive symptoms, and less effective parenting. Their children were also more likely to have social and emotional difficulties, and these associations were partially mediated through family relationships and parent well-being. For some families, work in the 24-hour economy may strain the well-being of parents and children.

Background: This study investigates whether the association of job strain and insecurity with health differs by status. Methods: A cross-sectional study of 2,249 employed workers aged 40–44 years conducted in two regions in south-east Australia in 2000 used a self-completed questionnaire to collect data. Multivariate analyses were used to compare depression, anxiety, physical health and general practitioner (GP) visits over 12 months across categories of job strain and insecurity for three status groups (high, middle and low). Results: High job strain and job insecurity were independently associated with poor mental health, poor physical health and visits to the GP for all status groups when adjusted for confounders. High job strain was associated with depression (OR=2.46, 95% CI 1.96-3.07), anxiety (OR=2.56, 95% Cl 2.05-3.20), lower mean physical health scores (-1.11, 95% Cl-1.98–0.23), and more visits to the GP (IRR=1.20, 95% Cl 1.05-1.37). High job insecurity also showed significant associations with depression (OR=3.03, 95% Cl 2.03–4.53), anxiety (OR=2.66, 95% Cl 1.81-3.91), and GP visits (IRR=1.27, 95% Cl 1.01-1.60). There were no significant differences by status in the associations of job strain and insecurity with outcomes. Conclusion: High-status workers were just as likely as low-status workers to be exposed to adverse work conditions and both status groups showed similar health effects. Implications: Exposure to insecure and high-strain jobs is likely to rise as economies and labour markets respond to globalisation and political change. High status may not protect employees from either exposure or impact, thus widening the population health consequences of adverse work conditions.

Campylobacter is among the most important agents of enteritis in developed countries. We have described the potential environmental determinants of the seasonal pattern of infection with campylobacter in Europe, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Specifically, we investigated the role of climate variability on laboratory-confirmed cases of campylobacter infection from 15 populations. Regression analysis was used to quantify the associations between timing of seasonal peaks in infection in space and time. The short-term association between weekly weather and cases was also investigated using Poisson regression adapted for time series data. All countries in our study showed a distinct seasonality in campylobacter transmission, with many, but not all, populations showing a peak in spring. Countries with milder winters have peaks of infection earlier in the year. The timing of the peak of infection is weakly associated with high temperatures 3 months previously. Weekly variation in campylobacter infection in one region of the UK appeared to be little affected by short-term changes in weather patterns. The geographical variation in the timing of the seasonal peak suggests that climate may be a contributing factor to campylobacter transmission. The main driver of seasonality of campylobacter remains elusive and underscores the need to identify the major serotypes and routes of transmission for this disease.

This study examined the associations between work stressors and mental health in organizationally employed and self-employed workers, and with the numbers of general practitioner (GP) services used by these two employment groups. The participants were selected from those already taking part in the PATH Through Life Project, in Australia. A total of 2275 men and women aged from 40 to 44 years participated in a community survey and were in the labour force at the time of the interview. Those who participated entered responses into a hand-held computer under the supervision of an interviewer. A total of 14.2% of the group identified themselves as self-employed. Respondents also provided details of their occupation and the extent to which they experienced work stressors. Some 72.6% of these participants gave consent for information on their use of GP services over a 12-month period to be obtained from national insurance records. We found that self-employed men and women reported more decision authority than t...

Objective: To examine independent associations of job strain (high demands and low control) and job insecurity with mental and physical health outcomes. Design: Cross sectional general population study conducted in 2000 using a self completed questionnaire. Setting: Two adjoining cities in south east Australia. Subjects: 1188 employed professionals, aged 40–44 years, 55% (n = 655) male. Main outcome measures: Depression, anxiety, physical, and self rated health (SRH). Results: Adverse job conditions were relatively prevalent as 23% of the sample reported high job strain, while 7.3% and 23% reported high and moderate job insecurity respectively. Associations between job conditions and health persisted after adjustment for gender, education, marital status, employment status, major life events, and negative affectivity (personality). When adjusted for job strain, high job insecurity was independently associated with a greater than threefold increase in odds for poor SRH, depression and anxiety (OR (95% confidence intervals) poor SRH: 3.72 (1.97 to 7.04) depression: 3.49 (1.90 to 6.41), anxiety: 3.29 (1.71 to 6.33)), and a twofold increase for physical health 2.19 (1.21 to 3.95). High job strain also showed significant independent associations with depression: 2.54 (1.34 to.4.75) and anxiety: 3.15 (1.48 to 6.70). Conclusion: In this relatively privileged socioeconomic group, insecure employment and high job strain showed independent, consistent, and strong associations with physical and mental health. These adverse job conditions are on the increase, particularly insecure employment, and the influence of these two work conditions are an important focus for future public health research and their prevalence and impact should be examined in other occupations.

Vitamin A deficiency is a recognized risk factor for severe measles. WHO and UNICEF have recommended vitamin A for the treatment of measles but there are children still dying from measles. A systematic review, including the use of meta-analysis was done of randomized controlled trials comparing vitamin A with placebo obtained from a systematic search of the medical literature to determine whether vitamin A prevents mortality and pneumonia-specific mortality in children with measles. We identified five trials conducted in Africa, four in hospitals and one in a community that met the inclusion criteria. There were 445 children aged 6 months to 13 years supplemented with vitamin A and 478 with placebo. There was a 39 per cent reduction in overall mortality when vitamin A was used for the treatment of measles but this was not statistically significant (relative risk 0.61; 95 per cent confidence interval 0.32-1.12). When stratified by dose, 200 000 IU of vitamin A given for 2 days was associated with a reduction in overall mortality (0.36, 0.14-0.82) and pneumonia-specific mortality (0.33, 0.08-0.92) in hospitalized children in areas with high case fatality. Greater reduction in mortality was observed in children under the age of 2 years (0.17, 0.03-0.61). On the other hand, a single dose of 200 000 IU of vitamin A was not associated with reduced mortality (1.25, 0.48-3.1). There were no trials comparing a single dose with two doses of vitamin A. There were not enough studies to separate out the individual effects of age, dose, formulation, hospitalization and case fatality in the study area. We conclude that 200 000 IU of vitamin A repeated on 2 days should be used for the treatment of measles as recommended by WHO in children admitted to hospitals in areas where the case fatality is high.

Pakistan is a male-dominated society and women's status relative to men is worse than that in most other countries. Women have primary responsibility for the health of infants and small children and this is considered to be the women's work. Women are usually secluded from men and have to observe purdah (wearing a veil to cover their face from men). They rarely have a choice of whom they marry, how many children they have, and whether they work. This patriarchal structure greatly limits the possibilities for women to be active outside the home. Two indicators of low female status in Pakistan are limited participation of women in economic activities outside the home and a high percentage of illiterate women (Sathar et al., 1988).

Objectives To investigate the extent improvement or deterioration in employee job security, control or workload is associated with a change in mental health. Design Self-report panel data (2000, 2004) on mental health (symptoms of depression and generalised anxiety) and job demands, control and insecurity. Changes in exposures and outcomes were calculated by subtracting wave 1 from wave 2 scores. Changes in mental health were regressed onto changes in work conditions, adjusting for confounders. Sensitivity analyses assessed reverse causation, floor and ceiling effects. Setting Two adjoining cities in south-east Australia. Participants 1975 employees aged 40–48 years, 50% (n=995) male. Results Improvements and deterioration in each work condition were associated with corresponding improvements or deterioration in mental health. The association between changes in job insecurity and symptoms of depression was B=0.386 (95% CI 0.245 to 0.527) and with anxiety symptoms was B=0.434 (95% CI 0.267 to 0.601). Similarly, changes in job control were associated with changes in depressive (B=−0.548; 95% CI −0.791 to −0.304) and anxiety symptoms (B=−0.608; 95% CI −0.896 to −0.319) as were changes in job demands (B depression=0.386; 95% CI 0.245 to 0.527; B anxiety=0.434; 95% CI 0.267 to 0.601). Excluding people with severe symptoms at baseline did not alter the findings; however, path analyses indicated that depression may precede a worsening of work conditions. Conclusion Among mid-aged employees, deteriorating work conditions may amplify population health burdens, especially anxiety. Furthermore, better quality jobs, combining an array of positive conditions, could alleviate major population health burdens.

SUMMARYThis study compares the seasonality of rotavirus diarrhoeal hospital admissions and its relationship to climatic factors across three Australian cities. Weekly admission of rotavirus diarrhoea (1993–2003) in children aged

Foodborne illness is a significant public health issue in most countries, including Australia. We examined the association between temperature and salmonellosis notifications, and compared these associations for 5 Australian cities.Log-linear models describing monthly salmonellosis notifications in terms of calendar time and monthly average temperatures were fitted over the period 1991 to 2001 for each city. We used a negative binomial chance model to accommodate overdispersion in the counts.The long-term trend showed an increase in salmonellosis notifications in each of the 5 cities. There was a positive association between monthly salmonellosis notifications and mean monthly temperature of the previous month in every city. Seasonal patterns in salmonellosis notifications were fully explained by changes in temperature.The strength of the association, the consistency across 5 cities, and a plausible biologic pathway suggest that higher ambient temperatures are a cause of higher salmonellosis notifications. The lag of 1 month suggests that temperature might be more influential earlier in the production process rather than at the food preparation stage. This knowledge can help to guide policy on food preparation and distribution. It also suggests a basis for an early warning system for increased risk from salmonellosis, and raises yet another possible health problem with global warming.

Pakistan has an infant mortality rate (IMR) of 90.5/1000 live births, and the country's child mortality level of 117.5 is worse than in other South Asian countries. Rapid population growth combined with rural-to-urban migration has led to the creation of urban slums in which morbidity levels are usually higher than in rural populations. A study was conducted in January 1993 in 6 slums of Karachi where the Aga Khan University has operated primary health care programs since 1985. Researchers recorded the deaths of 347 children under age 5 years old due to diarrhea and acute respiratory infections (ARI) during 1989-93. 235 mothers of these children were interviewed. The following are discussed as risk factors for under-5 child mortality: the use of traditional healers, poor nutritional status, incomplete or no immunization, the quick change of healers, inappropriate child care arrangements, mother's literacy, who decides about outside treatment, short birth interval, bottle feeding, and nuclear family structure. Maternal autonomy, appropriate health-seeking behavior, and child-rearing processes identified in the study point to the need for intervention strategies which go beyond the usual primary health care initiatives and involve communities in developing social support systems for mothers.

The objective of the present study was to determine whether vitamin A prevents pneumonia, diarrhoea and other infections in children with measles. A meta-analysis was carried out of randomized controlled trials identified through a systematic search of the medical literature for studies that used vitamin A to treat measles. A total of 492 children, aged from 6 months to 13 years, were supplemented with vitamin A, and 536 children were given placebo in six trials, five of which were conducted in hospitals and one in a community setting. The main outcome measures were: incidence of pneumonia, diarrhoea, croup, and otitis media; and duration of pneumonia, diarrhoea, fever and hospitalization. There was no significant reduction in the incidence of pneumonia or diarrhoea but there was a 47 per cent reduction in the incidence of croup (RR = 0.53; 95 per cent CI = 0.29-0.89) in children who were treated with 200 000 IU of vitamin A on 2 consecutive days. Only one study reported a 74 per cent reduction in the incidence of otitis media (RR = 0.26 95 per cent CI = 0.05-0.92). There was a statistically significant decrease in the duration of diarrhoea, pneumonia, hospital stay and fever in individual studies. It was concluded that vitamin A does have a beneficial effect on morbidity associated with measles and should be used as a treatment for hospitalized measles cases.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major health and economic burden worldwide. It is a leading cause of death in Australia and individuals aged ≥65 years account for 60% of CVD hospitalisations. Congestive heart failure (CHF) caused 1.8% of deaths in Australia in 2003 and accounted for 9.2% of hospitalizations due to CVD. It is a major burden on the community due to the costs of care and premature death. This study describes the seasonal pattern of emergency hospital admissions and mortality from CVD and CHF in 3 Australian cities, and the association with weekly temperature.

Introduction The annual summer peak in childhood asthma hospitalizations after school recommences occurs in both northern and southern hemispheres. This study quantifies the timing and magnitude of the effect of school term and returning to school throughout the year on childhood asthma. Methods We analyzed daily emergency asthma hospital admissions (1994–2003) in three climatically diverse Australian cities (Melbourne, Brisbane and Canberra) by age (0–4 years and 5–14 years). Using Poisson regression by week of school term (1–11) with reference to the preceding vacation period, we controlled for seasons and adjusted for temperature, humidity and long-term trends. Results A return-to-school effect was apparent for all three cities and was not limited to summer. Among school-aged children admissions rose from the first week of Term 1, peaking in week 3 in Melbourne (IRR 4.4, 3.8–5.1) and Brisbane (2.5, 2.1–3.0), and week 4 in Canberra (5.4, 3.7–8.0), returning to baseline by the end of term. Smaller significant peaks were apparent in Terms 2, 3 and 4 in Melbourne, Terms 2 and 4 in Canberra, and Term 4 in Brisbane. The same pattern occurred among younger children: in Term 1 for Melbourne (3.8, 3.4–4.2), Brisbane (3.0, 2.6–3.4) and Canberra (4.5, 3.2–6.3). Terms 2 and 4 showed significant peaks in Melbourne and Canberra. Discussion and Conclusions Childhood asthma emergency hospitalizations increased sharply with recommencement of school, peaked at 3–4 weeks, then declined to vacation levels. The return-to-school effect was strongest in Term 1, supporting the hypothesis that exposure to respiratory viruses after a long vacation (6–7 weeks) through mixing at school can be a significant cause of asthma morbidity. Effects were similar but attenuated in younger children, probably due to viruses brought home by older siblings at school and changed childcare arrangements. Seasonal variation in type and number of viruses circulating in the general population could interact with return-to-school effect, and the different climates in the three cities provide for different seasonal profiles of viruses. Return-to-school had least effect in Term 3 (winter); more virus circulating in the general population could mean children are already exposed with little additional exposure from mixing at school. Stress at the commencement of a new school year is unlikely to contribute much to the Term 1 asthma load, as hospitalizations take several weeks to peak. Quantifying the magnitude and timing of asthma hospitalizations in relation to school term could assist in improved hospital planning and better personal asthma management.

From the perspective of human society, one of the most significant occurrences of the twentieth century has been the demographic transition -- the movement from tragic and wastefully high death and birth rates to low rates in many countries. Many other countries, however, are still at only the early or intermediate stages of this process. In these countries, means need to be found to accelerate the transition. This book brings new evidence to bear on aspects of the demographic trasition, with contributions from leading demographers, anthropologists, sociologists, and historians. The book ranges widely over the history and current experience of both developed and developing countries, with particular emphasis on Asia and Africa. The new field of anthropological demography is strongly represented, with contributions challenging much conventional wisdom.

Introduction: This paper compares the prevalence estimates of diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in the Indigenous and non-Indigenous New South Wales (NSW) prisoner population in 1996 and 2001, and also compares the 2001 prevalence estimates with Australian population data. Methods: In 1996 and 2001, 789 and 916 prisoners, respectively, in NSW underwent a face-to-face interview covering behavioural risks and physical and mental health. Weight, height and blood pressure were recorded and blood was taken for measurement of cholesterol and random blood sugar. Results: The prevalence of hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia and smoking were lower in the 2001 prison survey as compared with the 1996 survey but the prevalence of smoking was extremely high in both the prison surveys (88% in 1996 and 79% in 2001). There were no differences in the age and sex-adjusted prevalence estimates for any condition except that the prison sample had a higher standardised morbidity ratio for angina than the AusDiab population. Conclusion: This study highlights the high prevalence of CVD risk factors, particularly in younger prisoners, when compared with the Australian non-prison population. Implications: Programs should be put in place to routinely screen for chronic disease conditions and to educate Australian prisoners regarding CVD and diabetes risk factors and their long-term management.