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How the crust in the core of the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (EHS) deforms responding to the India-Asia collision remains ambiguous. Here we present the first high-resolution receiver functions image of crustal structure along a new NW-SE trending dense nodal array crossing the core of the EHS. Two sets of low velocity zones (LVZs) are clearly observed: one with a flat style beneath the western Lhasa terrane and Higher Himalaya at 18–20 km depth and the other with two west-dipping shapes below the western Yarlung-Zangbo suture within 10–30 km depth. These LVZs caused by partial melting and aqueous fluids are disconnected, impeding the formation of crustal flow. A discontinuous east-dipping intra-crustal discontinuity and a sharp Moho offset of 7 km under the Aniqiao-Motuo shear zone are identified, suggesting that the underthrusting of the Indian lower crust and pure shear mechanisms jointly dominate crustal deformation in the core of the EHS.

We present detailed lithospheric images of the NE Tibetan Plateau by applying the depthmigration technique toSreceiver functions derived from 113 broadband stations. Our migrated imagesindicate that the lithosphere‐asthenosphere boundary (LAB) lies at depths of 105–120 km beneath the Qilianterrane and reaches depths of 126–140 km below the Alxa and Ordos blocks. The most prominent variationin the LAB depth is the presence of LAB steps of no less than 20 km in the transition zone between theactive NE Tibetan Plateau and the surrounding cratonic Alxa and Ordos blocks, which conflicts with themodel of southward subduction of the Alxa and Ordos blocks. Furthermore, the marked LAB steps occur at130 ± 10 km away from the southern surficial boundary faults between the NE Tibetan Plateau and thesurrounding tectonic provinces, corresponding to the North Qilian fault and the Liupanshan fault,respectively. Therefore, we propose that these scenarios of LAB can be attributed to the delamination offragmented mantle lithosphere in the transition zone between the NE Tibetan Plateau and the surroundingAlxa and Ordos blocks, triggered by lateral asthenosphericflow. In addition, our observations of a thinlithosphere with thickness of 107–115 km beneath the Songpan‐Ganzi terrane and the west Qinlin orogengreatly facilitate the process of underlying lateral asthenosphericflow. The isostatic uplift of the plateaucaused by the delamination of fragmented mantle lithosphere, together with increased horizontalcompressive stress, may have led to the outward growth of the NE Tibetan Plateau.

Detailed crustal structure of large earthquake source regions is of great significance for understanding the earthquake generation mechanism. Numerous large earthquakes have occurred in the NE Tibetan Plateau, including the 1920 Haiyuan M8.5 and 1927 Gulang M8 earthquakes. In this paper, we obtained a high-resolution three-dimensional crustal velocity model around the source regions of these two large earthquakes using an improved double-difference seismic tomography method. High-velocity anomalies encompassing the seismogenic faults are observed to extend to depths of 15 km, suggesting the asperity (high-velocity area) plays an important role in the preparation process of large earthquakes. Asperities are strong in mechanical strength and could accumulate tectonic stress more easily in long frictional locking periods, large earthquakes are therefore prone to generate in these areas. If the close relationship between the aperity and high-velocity bodies is valid for most of the large earthquakes, it can be used to predict potential large earthquakes and estimate the seismogenic capability of faults in light of structure studies.

To explore the west‐east variations in the underthrusting Indian lithosphere, we investigate the lithospheric structure using P and S receiver functions obtained from a west‐east linear array of 19 broadband stations spanning the Tethyan Himalaya at 85.5–88.5°E. Our observations of the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) and Moho serving as the top and bottom boundaries at depths of 42–54 km and 60–72 km, respectively, suggest that a thinning Indian lower crust with an eastward inclined geometry is underthrusting beneath the Tethyan Himalaya. An intra‐crustal low velocity zone (LVZ) immediately above the MTH at depths of 32–42 km is imaged, likely resulting from the presence of crustal dehydration partial melting. We propose that this LVZ induces the southward extrusion of melt‐weakened crustal material with itself as a channel and facilitates the development of duplexing structures, by which Indian lower crustal materials could be accreted into the Himalayan wedge along the north‐south mid‐crustal ramp in the MHT. The eastward dipping lithosphere‐asthenosphere boundary is clearly observed ranging from 90 to 126 km, which generally coincides with the changing trends of the MHT and Moho. These observations can be attributed to the eastward steepening subduction angle of the Indian lithosphere.

We analyze the teleseismic waveform data recorded by 42 temporary stations from the Y2 and ANTILOPE-1 arrays using the P and S receiver function techniques to investigate the lithospheric structure beneath western Tibet. The Moho is reliably identified as a prominent feature at depths of 55-82 km in the stacked traces and in depth migrated images. It has a concave shape and reaches the deepest location at about 80 km north of the Indus-Yarlung suture (IYS). An intra-crustal discontinuity is observed at ~55 km depth below the southern Lhasa terrane, which could represent the upper border of the eclogitized underthrusting Indian lower crust. Underthrusting of the Indian crust has been widely observed beneath the Lhasa terrane and correlates well with the Bouguer gravity low, suggesting that the gravity anomalies in the Lhasa terrane are induced by topography of the Moho. At ~ 20 km depth, a mid-crustal low velocity zone (LVZ) is observed beneath the Tethyan Himalaya and southern Lhasa terrane, suggesting a layer of partial melts that decouples the thrust/fold deformation of the upper crust from the shortening and underthrusting in the lower crust. The Sp conversions at the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB) can be recognized at depths of 130-200 km, showing that the Indian lithospheric mantle is underthrusting with a ramp-flat shape beneath southern Tibet and probably is detached from the lower crust immediately under the IYS. Our observations reconstruct the configuration of the underthrusting Indian lithosphere and indicate significant along strike variations.

The Mw7.8 Gorkha Earthquake struck Nepal and ruptured the boundary between the Indian and Eurasian plates. We conducted 2D Pg-wave tomography to clarify the seismogenic structure and try to understand causal mechanisms for this large earthquake, using the aftershock data recorded by 15 broadband seismic stations located near the China-Nepal border. Our high-resolution results show that coseismic slip area of the main shock is consistent with the high P-wave velocity anomaly, and the region of maximum slip has a larger area with higher velocity than the region of initial slip, possibly resulting in the dominant low-frequency radiation of energy observed after the dominant high-frequency radiation of energy in the source rupture process. The boundary between these regions of contrasting high and low seismic velocity anomalies suggests a potential crustal tearing at the southern end of the Tangra Yum Co Rift, possibly resulting from different thrust speeds in the Greater Himalaya.

We have conducted a systematic shear wave splitting analysis using 1000 selected aftershocks with M > 2 from the 2013 Ms 7.0 Lushan earthquake along the Longmenshan fault system in southwest China. Polarization directions of fast shear waves show a bimodal distribution with one dominant direction approximately parallel to the fault strike and the other close to the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress direction. This indicates that in this area mechanisms causing crustal seismic anisotropy are both stress induced and fault zone structure controlled. Delay times between fast and slow shear waves do not show a clear trend of increase for deeper events, suggesting the anisotropic zone is mostly above the aftershocks, which are generally located below 8 km. We further applied a shear wave splitting tomography method to measured delay times to characterize the spatial distribution of seismic anisotropy. The three-dimensional anisotropic percentage model shows strong anisotropy above 8 km but low anisotropy below it. The mainshock slip zone and its aftershocks are associated with very low or negligible anisotropy and high velocity, indicating that the zones with high anisotropy and low velocity above 8 km are mechanically weak and it is difficult for stress to accumulate there. The main and back reverse fault zones are associated with high anisotropic anomalies above ∼8 km, likely caused by shear fabric or microfractures aligned parallel to the fault zone.

We present a tomographic Sn velocity model of the uppermost mantle beneath the Himalayan collision zone and surrounding regions. A total of 43,905 Sn phases are used in the investigation. The average Sn velocity in the study area is approximately 4.6 km/s, and the velocity perturbations reach 0.2 km/s. The Sn velocity distribution is consistent with Pn tomography results obtained previously. High velocities are found under the Indian plate, the Tarim Basin, and the Sichuan Basin, whereas low Sn velocities are found beneath the Myanmar region, the Hindu-Kush region, and the Lhasa block and western Qiangtang block. These results support the idea that the lithosphere of the Indian plate is subducted into the mantle and causes the upwelling of hot material. The east-west variability of the Sn velocity beneath the Indian plate and southern Tibet indicates that the underthrusting of the Indian continental lithosphere may be in a piecewise manner. The differences between the thermal structure of the crust and upper mantle in southern Tibet suggest that this region may be represented by a tectonic model of hot crust and cold mantle, supporting the idea that crustal material flow may occur in this region.

[1] We employ the P and S receiver function technique to data from the 44 seismic stations deployed in the eastern Himalayan syntaxis to investigate the crustal thickness, the average Poisson's ratio, and the depth of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB). The observed crustal thickness exhibits an overall NE-deepening trend, varying from 55 to 75 km. Two anomalous areas lie in the west and east of the Namche Barwa syntaxis characterized by thinner and thicker crust, respectively. The average Poisson's ratios within the study area are low in the north and moderate elsewhere with some high values in the south, consistent with felsic and intermediate rocks forming the crust. Our migrated images reveal that (1) the LAB of the Tibetan plate exists at relatively shallow depths (~110 km) and exhibits a gap beneath the Namche Barwa syntaxis, which may have formed by the delamination of mantle lithosphere due to local mantle upwelling, and (2) the LAB of the Asian plate is observed at a depth of ~180 km, which implies that the Asian plate has advanced southward to about 30°N under the Lhasa terrane. Our results provide new insights into the understanding of continental subduction and lithospheric deformation of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis.

As the western end point of continental collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates, Pamir is an ideal place to research uplifting mechanisms in the Tibetan plateau. In this study, 141 644 Pn arrivals were used to obtain seismic wave velocities and anisotropy in the uppermost mantle beneath Pamir and its adjacent regions by performing tomographic inversion of Pn travel times. The data were selected from multiple databases, including ISC/EHB, the Annual Bulletin of Chinese Earthquakes, and regional bulletins of Xinjiang. The tomography results reveal significant features with high resolution and correlate well with geological structures. The main results are as follows: (1) The Pn wave velocities are particularly high in the old stable blocks such as Tarim basin, Indian plate and Tajik basin, while the low Pn velocities always lie in tectonically active regions like the western Tibetan plateau, Pamir, Tianshan and Hindu Kush. (2) Strong Pn anisotropy is found beneath the Indian-Eurasian collision zone; its direction is parallel to the collision arc and nearly perpendicular to both the direction of maximum compression stress and relative crustal movement. The result is probably caused by the pure shear deformation in the uppermost mantle of the collision zone. (3) A geodynamic continent-continent collision model is proposed to show anisotropy and collision mechanisms between the Indian plate and the Tarim and Tajik basins.

SUMMARY Detailed high-resolution images of the crust–mantle and lithosphere–asthenosphere boundaries (the Moho and the LAB, respectively) have been well observed by applying an S-receiver function technique to data collected by the Hi-CLIMB (Himalayan-Tibetan Continental Lithosphere During Mountain Building) experiment. The Moho depth variation in the range of ∼50–70 km is in good agreement with that from previous P-receiver function results. The significant variation in the LAB depth indicates that the subducting Indian lithosphere drops northwards from a depth of ∼80 km beneath the Himalayas to ∼130 km just north of the Bangong–Nujiang suture at ∼33.0 ◦ N, and undergoes a transition from low angle to flat subduction beneath the Yarlung–Zangbo suture. Our findings provide new seismic constraints on the 3-D subducting configuration of the Indian lithosphere beneath Tibet.

Seismic tomography reveals an “R-shape” regional flow constrained between the depths of 50 to 80 km in the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau (STP) which demonstrates some of the differences revealed by the magnetotelluric (MT) soundings in some areas. The “R-shape” flow could be present in both the lower crust and uppermost mantle, but not in the lower crust above the Moho discontinuity. Lateral flow has been imaged under the Qiangtang and Songpan-Ganzi blocks while two channel flows have been revealed beneath the south part of the STP with the eastward lateral flow from the Qiangtang block separating into two channel flows. One branch turns southwards at the south Qiangtang block, along the Bangong-Nujiang fault reaching to the Indochina block, and another is across the Songpan-Ganzi block (fold system) which then separates into northward and southward parts. The northward branch is along the edge of the north Sichuan basin reaching to the Qingling fault and the southward channel turns south along the Anninghe fault, then turns eastward along the margins of the south Sichuan basin. Our study suggests that the crustal deformation along the deep, large sutures (such as the Longmen Shan fault zone) is maintained by dynamic pressure from the regional flow intermingled with the hot upwelling asthenosphere. The material in the lower crust and uppermost mantle flowing outward from the center of the plateau is buttressed by the old, strong lithosphere that underlies the Sichuan basin, pushing up on the crust above and maintaining steep topography through dynamic pressure. We therefore consider that the “R-shape” regional flow played a key role in the crustal deformation along the deep suture zones of the Bangong-Nujiang, the Longmen-Shan faults, and other local heavily faulted zones.

This is the first of two papers that describes a regional tomography investigation, which combines P-wave arrival times of both regional and teleseismic earthquakes to obtain 3D mantle structures of East Asia up to 1 000 km depth. The most important findings of this tomography study are reported in this paper as follows. (1) No fast P-wave velocity anomalies can be related to subducted oceanic slabs beneath the 660 km discontinuity; instead the subducted oceanic slabs become flattened and stagnant within the transition zone. (2) The high velocity anomalies in the transition zone extend up to 1 500 km to the westward of the active trenches, which is a unique feature in the worldwide subduction systems. (3) Slow P-wave velocity anomalies are visible up to ∼250 km underneath most of the East Asia on the east of 115°E, similar to the area of the stagnant slabs. These observations have important implications for the geodynamic process at depths beneath the East Asia, which might in turn control the widespread Cenozoic volcanism and associated extensional tectonics seen at the Earth’s surface.

We have updated the lateral variations of the quality factor Q0 (Q at 1 Hz) beneath the crust of North China using ML amplitude tomography with near three times data. The data were selected from the Annual Bulletin of Chinese Earthquakes (ABCE) in 1985–2009, including 26 283 ML amplitude readings from 4 204 events recorded by 38 stations. The result is similar with previous research but has higher resolution. Estimated Q0 values are consistent with tectonic and topographic structure in North China. Q0 is low in the active tectonic regions having many faults, such as Bohai bay, North China basin, the Shanxi and Yinchuan grabens, while it is high in the stable Ordos craton. Q0 values are low in several topographically low-lying areas, such as the North China, Taikang-Hefei, and Subei-Huanghai Sea basins, whereas it is high in mountainous and uplift regions exhibiting surface expressions of crystalline basement rocks: the Yinshan, Yanshan, Taihang, Qinling and Dabie mountains, Luxi and Jiaoliao uplifts. Quality factor estimates are also consistent with Pn and Sn velocity patterns. High velocity values in general correspond with high Q0 and vice versa. This coincides with a common temperature influence in the crust and uppermost mantle.

P-wave arrival times of both regional and teleseismic earthquakes were inverted to obtain mantle structures of East Asia. No fast (slab) velocity anomalies was not find beneath the 660-km discontinuity through tomography besides a stagnant slab within the transition zone. Slow P-wave velocity anomalies are present at depths of 100–250 km below the active volcanic arc and East Asia. The western end of the flat stagnant slab is about 1 500 km west to active trench and may also be correlated with prominent surface topographic break in eastern China. We suggested that active mantle convection might be operating within this horizontally expanded “mantle wedge” above both the active subducting slabs and the stagnant flat slabs beneath much of the North China plain. Both the widespread Cenozoic volcanism and associated extensional basins in East Asia could be the manifestation of this vigorous upper mantle convection. Cold or thermal anomalies associated with the stagnant slabs above the 660-km discontinuity have not only caused a broad depression of the boundary due to its negative Clapeyron slope but also effectively shielded the asthenosphere and continental lithosphere above from any possible influence of mantle plumes in the lower mantle.

SUMMARY Amplitude tomography reconstructs seismic attenuation directly from recorded wave amplitudes. We have applied the tomography to amplitude data reported in the ‘Annual Bulletin of Chinese Earthquakes’ and interpreted the regionally varying crustal attenuation in terms of tectonics. The seismic amplitudes were originally recorded for determining the M L and M S magnitudes. They generally correspond to the maximum amplitudes of the horizontal components of the short-period S waves and intermediate-period Rayleigh waves. Both sets of measurements are sensitive to crustal structure. The peak amplitudes from M L amplitudes spread spherically with significant dispersion and scattering. M S amplitudes show cylindrical spreading with little dispersion. Average crustal Q values for attenuation at 1 Hz are 737 and 505 for M L and M S, respectively, with substantial regional variations. Frequency dependence in the attenuation is also indicated. Regions with the lowest attenuation (high Q values) are beneath the south China Block, Sichuan Basin, Ordos Platform, the Daxinganling and the Korea Craton. These tend to be tectonically inactive regions, which are generally dominated by intrusive and cratonic rocks in the upper crust. Regions with the highest attenuation (low Q values) are beneath Bohai Basin, Yunnan, eastern Songpan-Ganzi Terrain, margins of the Ordos platform and the Qilian Shan. These are predominantly active basins, grabens and fold belts. The continental margin also highly attenuates both S and surface waves.

Receiver function imaging along a temporary seismic array (ANTILOPE-2) reveals detailed information of the underthrusting of the Indian crust in southern Tibet. The Moho dips northward from ~ 50 km to 80 km beneath the Himalaya terrane, and locally reaches ~ 85 km beneath the Indus–Yalung suture. It remains at ~ 80 km depth across the Lhasa terrane, and shallows to ~ 70 km depth under the Qiangtang terrane. An intra-crustal interface at ~ 60 km beneath the Lhasa terrane can be clearly followed southward through the Main Himalaya Thrust and connects the Main Boundary Thrust at the surface, which represents the border of the Indian crust that is underthrusting until south of the Bangong–Nujiang Suture. A mid-crustal low velocity zone is observed at depths of 14–30 km beneath the Lhasa and Himalaya terranes probably formed by partial melt and/or aqueous fluids.

Pn velocity lateral variation and anisotropy images were reconstructed by adding about 50 000 travel times from the regional seismic networks to the datum set of near 40 000 travel times from National Seismic Network of China used by WANG,et al. We discussed the relation of Pn velocity variation to Moho depth, Earth’s heat flow, distribution of Cenozoic volcanic rock and the result of rock experiment under high pressure and high temperature. The result of quantitative analysis indicates that Pn velocity is positively correlated with the crust thickness and negatively correlated with the Earth’s heat flow. Two linear regression equations, one between Pn velocity and crust thickness, and the other between Pn velocity and heat flow, were obtained. The rate of variation of Pn velocityν p with pressureP, ∂ν p/∂P, estimated from the velocity variation with crust thickness, ∂ν p/∂H is close to the result obtained from the rock experiment under high pressure and high temperature. If the effect of crust thickness on Pn velocity is deducted from the velocity variation, then the low Pn velocity beneath Qinghai-Xizang plateau is more notable. The low Pn velocity regions well agree with the Cenozoic volcanic rock. In the several regions with significant anisotropy, the direction of fast Pn velocity is consistent with the orientation of maximum principal crustal compressive stress, and also with the direction of present-day crustal movement. It indicates that the fast Pn velocity direction may be related to the deformation or flow of top mantle material along the direction of maximum pressure.

Pn arrival time data are collected from the bulletins of both national and regional seismological network in China. These data are tomographically inverted to map the lateral variation and anisotropy of Pn velocity in the northeastern marginal region of Qinghai-Xizang plateau. The average Pn velocity in this region is 8.09 km/s, being a little higher than the average for whole China. Higher velocity is found in tectonically stable Qaidam basin, while lower velocity is seen in and around tectonically active Shanxi graben. The region where the 1920 Haiyuan great earth-quake occurred shows a slightly low Pn velocity. A noticeable result is that, differing from the tectonically compressive Tianshan region, where Pn velocity is low, the Qilianshan region, where the Neotectonic deformation is also primarily compressive, shows high Pn velocity. In the uppermost mantle beneath the Ordos plateau Pn velocity is inhomogeneous, varying from higher velocity in southwestern part to lower one in northeastern part. This may be attributed to possible movement of the Ordos block, as there are strong earthquakes all around the block.

A high-resolution two-dimensional Pg-wave velocity model is obtained for the upper crust around the epicenters of the April 20, 2013 Ms7.0 Lushan earthquake and the May 12, 2008 Ms8.0 Wenchuan earthquake, China. The tomographic inversion uses 47235 Pg arrival times from 6812 aftershocks recorded by 61 stations around the Lushan and Wenchuan earthquakes. Across the front Longmenshan fault near the Lushan earthquake, there exists a strong velocity contrast with higher velocities to the west and lower velocities to the east. Along the Longmenshan fault system, there exist two high velocity patches showing an “X” shape with an obtuse angle along the near northwest-southeast (NW-SE) direction. They correspond to the Precambrian Pengguan and Baoxing complexes on the surface but with a ~20 km shift, respectively. The aftershock gap of the 2008 Wenchuan and the 2013 Lushan earthquakes is associated with lower velocities. Based on the theory of maximum effective moment criterion, this suggests that the aftershock gap is weak and the ductile deformation is more likely to occur in the upper crust within the gap under the near NW-SE compression. Therefore our results suggest that the large earthquake may be hard to happen within the gap.

[1] We have obtained Vp and Vs velocity images of the uppermost mantle beneath the continental collision zone from the Alps to the Himalaya by performing tomographic inversion using both Pn and Sn travel times. 654,999 Pn arrivals and 121,838 Sn arrivals were selected from the joint database including ISC/EHB, Iran bulletin and the Annual Bulletin of Chinese Earthquakes. Average Pn and Sn velocities are 8.04 km/s and 4.60 km/s, respectively, and maximum velocity perturbations are about 6%. Pn velocity correlates well with topography. In general, mountains, with high elevations, show low velocity, while the seas, basins and plains with low elevations show high velocity because the mountains are collision zones with strong tectonic activity and the low elevation areas are stable plates. The large tectonic lines are boundaries between high and low Pn velocity, such as plate boundaries, sutures and faults between plates and orogens. Sn velocity shows a very similar pattern to Pn velocity. A geodynamic cartoon is proposed to show the relationship between velocity and tectonics, indicating that the sutures are boundaries with high dip angles and the plate boundaries are low angle reverse faults in the region.

The fate of the colliding Indian and Asian tectonic plates below the Tibetan high plateau may be visualized by, in addition to seismic tomography, mapping the deep seismic discontinuities, like the crust-mantle boundary (Moho), the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB), or the discontinuities at 410 and 660 km depth. We herein present observations of seismic discontinuities with the P and S receiver function techniques beneath central and western Tibet along two new profiles and discuss the results in connection with results from earlier profiles, which did observe the LAB. The LAB of the Indian and Asian plates is well-imaged by several profiles and suggests a changing mode of India-Asia collision in the east-west direction. From eastern Himalayan syntaxis to the western edge of the Tarim Basin, the Indian lithosphere is underthrusting Tibet at an increasingly shallower angle and reaching progressively further to the north. A particular lithospheric region was formed in northern and eastern Tibet as a crush zone between the two colliding plates, the existence of which is marked by high temperature, low mantle seismic wavespeed (correlating with late arriving signals from the 410 discontinuity), poor Sn propagation, east and southeast oriented global positioning system displacements, and strikingly larger seismic (SKS) anisotropy.

[1] We have obtained velocity images of the uppermost mantle beneath China by performing tomographic inversion of both Pn and Sn traveltimes. From the Annual Bulletin of Chinese Earthquakes, 99,139 Pn arrivals and 43,646 Sn arrivals were selected. Pn anisotropy was also obtained simultaneously with Pn velocity. Average Pn and Sn velocities are 8.05 and 4.55 km/s, respectively, and maximum velocity perturbations are about 3–4%. The Pn and Sn velocities are low in eastern China and high in western China. Particularly high velocities are associated with old basins (for example, Tarim, Junggar, Turpan-Hami, Qaidam, and Sichuan) and stable craton (for example, Ordos). Low Sn velocities are found mainly throughout North China. In addition, velocities are relatively low beneath the central Tibetan Plateau and the North-South Seismic Zone (along 103°E). In Tarim and central China where we observe strong anisotropy, the fast Pn velocity directions are consistent with the directions of maximum principal compressive stress as well as directions of crustal movement determined from Global Positioning System. Beneath the India-Eurasia collision zone, the Pn anisotropy direction is parallel to the collision arc and nearly perpendicular to both the direction of maximum compression and crustal movement resulting from pure shear deformation. Both the velocity variations and anisotropy indicate that the Tibetan Plateau was extruded, and the mantle material beneath the plateau has flowed around the East Himalaya Syntax, while the remaining material has diverted northwestward beneath the Tarim Basin.