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Carbon-14 ($^{14}$C) is produced in the atmosphere when neutrons from cosmic-ray air showers are captured by $^{14}$N nuclei. Atmospheric $^{14}$C becomes trapped in air bubbles in polar ice as compacted snow (firn) transforms into ice. $^{14}$C is also produced in situ in ice grains by penetrating cosmic-ray neutrons and muons. Recent ice core measurements indicate that in the $^{14}$CO phase, the $^{14}$C is dominated by the in situ cosmogenic component at most ice coring sites. Thus, it should be possible to use ice-bound $^{14}$CO to reconstruct the historical flux of cosmic rays at Earth, without the transport and deposition uncertainties associated with $^{10}$Be or the carbon cycle uncertainties affecting atmospheric $^{14}$CO$_2$. The measurements will be sensitive to the cosmic-ray flux above the energy range most affected by solar modulation. We present estimates of the expected sensitivity of $^{14}$CO in ice cores to the historical flux of Galactic cosmic rays, based on recent studies of $^{14}$CO in polar ice., Comment: Presented at the International Cosmic Ray Conference (ICRC2019) in Madison, WI, USA, July 2019. 8 pages, 2 figures

Restoring operation of critical infrastructure systems after catastrophic events is an important issue, inspiring work in multiple fields, including network science, civil engineering, and operations research. We consider the problem of finding the optimal order of repairing elements in power grids and similar infrastructure. Most existing methods either only consider system network structure, potentially ignoring important features, or incorporate component level details leading to complex optimization problems with limited scalability. We aim to narrow the gap between the two approaches. Analyzing realistic recovery strategies, we identify over- and undersupply penalties of commodities as primary contributions to reconstruction cost, and we demonstrate traditional network science methods, which maximize the largest connected component, are cost inefficient. We propose a novel competitive percolation recovery model accounting for node demand and supply, and network structure. Our model well approximates realistic recovery strategies, suppressing growth of the largest connected component through a process analogous to explosive percolation. Using synthetic power grids, we investigate the effect of network characteristics on recovery process efficiency. We learn that high structural redundancy enables reduced total cost and faster recovery, however, requires more information at each recovery step. We also confirm that decentralized supply in networks generally benefits recovery efforts., Comment: 14 pages, 6 figures

Stackelberg security game models and associated computational tools have seen deployment in a number of high-consequence security settings, such as LAX canine patrols and Federal Air Marshal Service. These models focus on isolated systems with only one defender, despite being part of a more complex system with multiple players. Furthermore, many real systems such as transportation networks and the power grid exhibit interdependencies between targets and, consequently, between decision makers jointly charged with protecting them. To understand such multidefender strategic interactions present in security, we investigate game theoretic models of security games with multiple defenders. Unlike most prior analysis, we focus on the situations in which each defender must protect multiple targets, so that even a single defender's best response decision is, in general, highly non-trivial. We start with an analytical investigation of multidefender security games with independent targets, offering an equilibrium and price-of-anarchy analysis of three models with increasing generality. In all models, we find that defenders have the incentive to over-protect targets, at times significantly. Additionally, in the simpler models, we find that the price of anarchy is unbounded, linearly increasing both in the number of defenders and the number of targets per defender. Considering interdependencies among targets, we develop a novel mixed-integer linear programming formulation to compute a defender's best response, and make use of this formulation in approximating Nash equilibria of the game. We apply this approach towards computational strategic analysis of several models of networks representing interdependencies, including real-world power networks. Our analysis shows how network structure and the probability of failure spread determine the propensity of defenders to over- or under-invest in security.

We present a characterization of short-term stability of random Boolean networks under \emph{arbitrary} distributions of transfer functions. Given any distribution of transfer functions for a random Boolean network, we present a formula that decides whether short-term chaos (damage spreading) will happen. We provide a formal proof for this formula, and empirically show that its predictions are accurate. Previous work only works for special cases of balanced families. It has been observed that these characterizations fail for unbalanced families, yet such families are widespread in real biological networks.

M94 (NGC 4736) is investigated using images from the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (FUV-band), Hubble Space Telescope (NUV-band), Kitt Peak 0.9-m telescope (H-alpha, R, and I bands), and Palomar 5-m telescope (B-band), along with spectra from the International Ultraviolet Explorer and Lick 1-m telescopes. The wide-field UIT image shows FUV emission from (a) an elongated nucleus, (b) a diffuse inner disk, where H-alpha is observed in absorption, (c) a bright inner ring of H II regions at the perimeter of the inner disk (R = 48 arcsec. = 1.1 kpc), and (d) two 500-pc size knots of hot stars exterior to the ring on diametrically opposite sides of the nucleus (R= 130 arcsec. = 2.9 kpc). The HST/FOC image resolves the NUV emission from the nuclear region into a bright core and a faint 20 arcsec. long ``mini-bar'' at a position angle of 30 deg. Optical and IUE spectroscopy of the nucleus and diffuse inner disk indicates an approximately 10^7 or 10^8 yr-old stellar population from low-level starbirth activity blended with some LINER activity. Analysis of the H-alpha, FUV, NUV, B, R, and I-band emission along with other observed tracers of stars and gas in M94 indicates that most of the star formation is being orchestrated via ring-bar dynamics involving the nuclear mini-bar, inner ring, oval disk, and outer ring. The inner starburst ring and bi-symmetric knots at intermediate radius, in particular, argue for bar-mediated resonances as the primary drivers of evolution in M94 at the present epoch. Similar processes may be governing the evolution of the ``core-dominated'' galaxies that have been observed at high redshift. The gravitationally-lensed ``Pretzel Galaxy'' (0024+1654) at a redshift of approximately 1.5 provides an important precedent in this regard., Comment: revised figure 1 (corrected coordinate labels on declination axis); 19 pages of text + 19 figures (jpg files); accepted for publication in AJ

Far ultraviolet FUV imagery of the edge-on, Sc/SBd galaxy, NGC 4631 reveals very strong FUV emission, resulting from active star formation, uniformly distributed along the galactic mid- plane. Multi-band imagery, HI and HII position-velocity curves and extinction considerations all imply that the emission is from the outer edges of the visible galaxy. The overall FUV morphology of this edge-on disk system is remarkably similar to those of the so-called "chain galaxies" evident at high redshift, thus suggesting a similar interpretation for at least some of those distant objects. FUV, U, B and V magnitudes, measured for 48 star forming regions, along with corresponding H-alpha and H-beta measurements are used to construct diagnostic color-color diagrams. Although there are significant exceptions, most of the star forming regions are less massive and older than 30 Doradus. Comparison with the expectations from two star formation models yields ages of 2.7 to 10 Myr for the instantaneous burst (IB) model and star formation cut-off ages of 0 to 9 Myr for the continuous star formation (CSF) model. Interpreted in terms of the IB model the photometry implies a total created mass in the 48 star forming regions of 25 million solar-masses. When viewed as resulting from constant star formation the photometry implies a star formation rate of 0.33 solar-masses/yr. These results are compared to those derived from FIR and radio observations. Corrections for FUV emission reprocessed by interstellar grains are estimated., Comment: 29 pages including 6 encapsulated Postscript figures; accepted for publication in ApJ; changed table format

The bright Magellanic irregular galaxy NGC 4449 was observed during the Astro-2 Space Shuttle mission by the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), which obtained images of a ~40 arcmin field centered on the galaxy in two broad far-ultraviolet (FUV) bands centered at 1520 A and 1620 A, with 3 arcsec - 5 arcsec spatial resolution. Together with H-alpha and H-beta fluxes from ground-based Fabry-Perot images, these data are analyzed in order to explore the recent star formation history of NGC 4449. Maps of the flux ratios H-alpha/FUV and FUV/blue continuum are presented and interpreted using evolutionary synthesis models. Photometry is presented both for 22 apertures containing large OB complexes and for 57 small apertures containing compact FUV-emitting knots. The OB complexes along the northern edge of the visible system have high H-alpha/FUV ratios, and thus appear to be more dominated by the current generation of stars than are other parts of the galaxy. However, young sources do exist elsewhere and are particularly conspicuous along the bar. The small aperture analysis shows three candidate regions for sequential star formation. Surface brightness profiles are consistent with an exponential disk in both the FUV and the optical continuum., Comment: 30 pages + 9 tables + 14 figs (GIF). Accepted for ApJ, 1 Nov 98, Vol 507, No. 1; until then, paper available as merged postscript file, ftp://abba.gsfc.nasa.gov/pub/bhill/pp/n4449_pp1.ps (figs better), tabs separate in same dir [2nd repl getting comment & landscape right]

We present deep ultraviolet observations of a field containing the cluster Abell 2246 (z=0.225) which provide far-ultraviolet (FUV) images of some of the faintest galaxies yet observed in that bandpass. Abell 2246 lies within the field of view of Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT) observations of the quasar HS1700+64, which accumulated over 7100 seconds of UIT FUV exposure time during the Astro-2 mission in March 1995. For objects found on both the FUV and ground-based V-band images, we obtain FUV (l ~ 1520 A) photometry and V-band photometry, as well as mid-UV (l ~ 2490 A) photometry from UIT Astro-1 observations and ground-based I-band photometry. We find five objects in the images which are probably galaxies at the distance of Abell 2246, with FUV magnitudes (m(FUV)) between 18.6 and 19.6, and V magnitudes between 18.4 and 19.6. We find that their absolute FUV fluxes and colors imply strongly that they are luminous galaxies with significant current star formation, as well as some relatively recent, but not current, (> 400 Myr ago) star formation. We interpret the colors of these five objects by comparing them with local objects, redshift-corrected template spectra and stellar population models, finding that they are plausibly matched by 10-Gyr-old population models with decaying star formation, with decay time constants in the range 3 Gyr < t < 5 Gyr, with an additional color component from a single burst of moderate ( ~ 400-500 Myr) age. From derived FUV luminosities we compute current star formation rates. We compare the UV properties of Abell 2246 with those of the Coma cluster, finding that Abell 2246 has significantly more recent star formation, consistent with the Butcher-Oemler phenomenon., Comment: Accepted for publication in the Astronomical Journal, June 1998. 17 Pages AAS latex, includes 4 bitmap .jpg format images and 4 other figures. PDF, Embedded Gzipped PS version (1.9Mb) TeX source and figures available at http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~bd4r/galaxies.html

The Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT) was flown as part of the Astro observatory on the Space Shuttle Columbia in December 1990 and again on the Space Shuttle Endeavor in March 1995. Ultraviolet (1200-3300 Angstroms) images of a variety of astronomical objects, with a 40 arcmin field of view and a resolution of about 3 arcsec, were recorded on photographic film. The data recorded during the first flight are available to the astronomical community through the National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC); the data recorded during the second flight will soon be available as well. This paper discusses in detail the design, operation, data reduction, and calibration of UIT, providing the user of the data with information for understanding and using the data. It also provides guidelines for analyzing other astronomical imagery made with image intensifiers and photographic film., Comment: 44 pages, LaTeX, AAS preprint style and EPSF macros, accepted by PASP

We have used the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope to obtain deep far-UV (1620 Angstrom), 40' diameter images of the prototypical metal-rich globular cluster 47 Tucanae. We find a population of about 20 hot (Teff > 9000 K) objects near or above the predicted UV luminosity of the hot horizontal branch (HB) and lying within two half-light radii of the cluster center. We believe these are normal hot HB or post-HB objects rather than interacting binaries or blue stragglers. IUE spectra of two are consistent with post-HB phases. These observations, and recent HST photometry of two other metal-rich clusters, demonstrate that populations with rich, cool HB's can nonetheless produce hot HB and post-HB stars. The cluster center also contains an unusual diffuse far-UV source which is more extended than its V-band light. It is possible that this is associated with an intracluster medium, for which there was earlier infrared and X-ray evidence, and is produced by C IV emission or scattered light from grains., Comment: 13 pages AASLaTeX including one postscript figure and one bitmapped image, JPEG format. Submitted to the Astronomical Jorunal. Full Postscript version available at http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~bd4r/

We used the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope during the March 1995 Astro-2 mission to obtain a deep far-UV image of the globular cluster NGC 362, which was formerly thought to have an almost entirely red horizontal branch (HB). 84 hot (T_eff > 8500 K) stars were detected within a radius of 8'.25 of the cluster center. Of these, 43 have FUV magnitudes consistent with HB stars in NGC 362, and at least 34 are cluster members. The number of cluster members is made uncertain by background contamination from blue stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC). There are six candidate supra-HB stars which have probably evolved from the HB. We discuss the implications of these results for the production of hot blue stars in stellar populations., Comment: 10 pages AASLaTeX including one postscript figure and one compressed bitmap, .jpg format. To appear in Ap. J. Letters. Postscript version also available at http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~bd4r/

We present new evidence for tidal interactions having occurred in the disk of M101 in the last 10^8 - 10^9 years. Recent imaging of the far-ultraviolet emission from M101 by the Shuttle-borne Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT) reveals with unprecedented clarity a disk-wide pattern of multiple linear arm segments (``crooked arms''). The deep FUV image also shows a faint outer spiral arm with a (``curly tail'') feature that appears to loop around the supergiant HII region NGC 5471 - linking this outlying starburst with the rest of the galaxy. These FUV-bright features most likely trace hot O & B-type stars along with scattered light from associated nebular dust. Counterparts of the outermost ``crooked arms'' are evident in maps at visible wavelengths and in the 21-cm line of HI. The inner-disk FUV arms are most closely associated with H$\alpha$ knots and the outer (downstream) sides of CO arms. Comparisons of the ``crooked arm'' and ``curly tail'' morphologies with dynamical simulations yield the greatest similitude, when the non- axisymmetric forcing comes from a combination of ``external interactions'' with one or more companion galaxies and ``internal perturbations'' from massive objects orbiting within the disk. We speculate that NGC 5471 represents one of these ``massive disturbers'' within the disk, whose formation followed from a tidal interaction between M101 and a smaller galaxy., Comment: Paper format (latex); length of paper (8); 4 gif figure files; uses aas2pp4.sty AASTeX macro file; to be published in Part I of the Astrophysical Journal

A mosaic of four UIT far-UV (FUV; 1620A) images, which covers most of the SMC bar, is presented, with derived stellar and HII region photometry. The UV morphology of the Bar shows that recent star formation there has left striking features including: a) four concentrations of UV-bright stars spread from northeast to southwest at nearly equal (~30 arcmin=0.5 kpc) spacings; b) a well-defined 8-arcmin ring of UV-bright stars surrounded by a larger H-alpha ring, suggesting sequential star formation. FUV PSF photometry is obtained for 11,306 stars, and a FUV luminosity function is derived. A (FUV-V,V) color-magnitude diagram for 195 identified supergiants, with derived extinctions; the bluest (least-reddened) stars of each spectral type have FUV-V colors consistent with models. FUV photometry is obtained for 42 H-alpha-selected HII regions, both for the stars and for the total emission within the apertures defined by Kennicutt & Hodge. The flux-weighted average ratio of total to stellar FUV flux is 2.15; the stellar FUV luminosity function indicates that most of the excess total flux is due to scattered FUV radiation, rather than faint stars. Both stellar and total emission are well correlated with H-alpha fluxes, and yield FUV/H-alpha ratios that are consistent with models of single-burst clusters with SMC metallicity, ages from 1-5 Myr, and moderate (E(B-V)=0.0-0.1 mag) internal SMC extinction., Comment: 26 pages, LaTeX, 4 encapsulated Postscript figures plus 4 .gif figures. Paper to appear in Astronomical Journal, March 1996 issue