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The antiplatelet effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids is primarily attributed to its metabolism to bioactive metabolites by oxygenases, such as lipoxygenases (LOX). Platelets have demonstrated the ability to generate 15-LOX-derived metabolites (15-oxylipins); however, whether 15-LOX is in the platelet or is required for the formation of 15-oxylipins remains unclear. This study seeks to elucidate whether 15-LOX is required for the formation of 15-oxylipins in the platelet and determine their mechanistic effects on platelet reactivity. In this study, 15-HETrE, 15-HETE, and 15-HEPE attenuated collagen-induced platelet aggregation, and 15-HETrE inhibited platelet aggregation induced by different agonists. The observed anti-aggregatory effect was due to the inhibition of intracellular signaling including αIIbβ3 and protein kinase C activities, calcium mobilization, and granule secretion. While 15-HETrE inhibited platelets partially through activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor β (PPARβ), 15-HETE also inhibited platelets partially through activation of PPARα. 15-HETrE, 15-HETE, or 15-HEPE inhibited 12-LOX in vitro, with arachidonic acid as the substrate. Additionally, a 15-oxylipin-dependent attenuation of 12-HETE level was observed in platelets following ex vivo treatment with 15-HETrE, 15-HETE, or 15-HEPE. Platelets treated with DGLA formed 15-HETrE and collagen-induced platelet aggregation was attenuated only in the presence of ML355 or aspirin, but not in the presence of 15-LOX-1 or 15-LOX-2 inhibitors. Expression of 15-LOX-1, but not 15-LOX-2, was decreased in leukocyte-depleted platelets compared to non-depleted platelets. Taken together, these findings suggest that 15-oxylipins regulate platelet reactivity; however, platelet expression of 15-LOX-1 is low, suggesting that 15-oxylipins may be formed in the platelet through a 15-LOX-independent pathway.

The oxylipins, 5S,12S-dihydroxy-6E,8Z,10E,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5S,12S-diHETE) and 5S,15S-dihydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,13E-eicosatetraenoic acid (5S,15S-diHETE), have been identified in cell exudates and have chemotactic activity toward eosinophils and neutrophils. Their biosynthesis has been proposed to occur by sequential oxidations of arachidonic acid (AA) by lipoxygenase enzymes, specifically through oxidation of AA by h5-LOX followed by h12-LOX, h15-LOX-1, or h15-LOX-2. In this work, h15-LOX-1 demonstrates altered positional specificity when reacting with 5S-HETE, producing 90% 5S,12S-diHETE, instead of 5S,15S-diHETE, with kinetics 5-fold greater than that of h12-LOX. This is consistent with previous work in which h15-LOX-1 reacts with 7S-HDHA, producing the noncanonical, DHA-derived, specialized pro-resolving mediator, 7S,14S-diHDHA. It is also determined that oxygenation of 5S-HETE by h15-LOX-2 produces 5S,15S-diHETE and its biosynthetic kcat/KM flux is 2-fold greater than that of h15-LOX-1, suggesting that h15-LOX-2 may have a greater role in lipoxin biosynthesis than previously thought. In addition, it is shown that oxygenation of 12S-HETE and 15S-HETE by h5-LOX is kinetically slow, suggesting that the first step in the in vitro biosynthesis of both 5S,12S-diHETE and 5S,15S-diHETE is the production of 5S-HETE.

The two oxylipins 7S,14S-dihydroxydocosahexaenoic acid (diHDHA) and 7S,17S-diHDHA [resolvin D5 (RvD5)] have been found in macrophages and infectious inflammatory exudates and are believed to function as specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs). Their biosynthesis is thought to proceed through sequential oxidations of DHA by lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes, specifically, by human 5-LOX (h5-LOX) first to 7(S)-hydroxy-4Z,8E,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-DHA (7S-HDHA), followed by human platelet 12-LOX (h12-LOX) to form 7(S),14(S)-dihydroxy-4Z,8E,10Z,12E,16Z,19Z-DHA (7S,14S-diHDHA) or human reticulocyte 15-LOX-1 (h15-LOX-1) to form RvD5. In this work, we determined that oxidation of 7(S)-hydroperoxy-4Z,8E,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-DHA to 7S,14S-diHDHA is performed with similar kinetics by either h12-LOX or h15-LOX-1. The oxidation at C14 of DHA by h12-LOX was expected, but the noncanonical reaction of h15-LOX-1 to make over 80% 7S,14S-diHDHA was larger than expected. Results of computer modeling suggested that the alcohol on C7 of 7S-HDHA hydrogen bonds with the backbone carbonyl of Ile399, forcing the hydrogen abstraction from C12 to oxygenate on C14 but not C17. This result raised questions regarding the synthesis of RvD5. Strikingly, we found that h15-LOX-2 oxygenates 7S-HDHA almost exclusively at C17, forming RvD5 with faster kinetics than does h15-LOX-1. The presence of h15-LOX-2 in neutrophils and macrophages suggests that it may have a greater role in biosynthesizing SPMs than previously thought. We also determined that the reactions of h5-LOX with 14(S)-hydroperoxy-4Z,7Z,10Z,12E,16Z,19Z-DHA and 17(S)-hydroperoxy-4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,15E,19Z-DHA are kinetically slow compared with DHA, suggesting that these reactions may be minor biosynthetic routes in vivo. Additionally, we show that 7S,14S-diHDHA and RvD5 have anti-aggregation properties with platelets at low micromolar potencies, which could directly regulate clot resolution.

Human reticulocyte 15-lipoxygenase-1 (h15-LOX-1 or ALOX15) and platelet 12-lipoxygenase (h12-LOX or ALOX12) catalysis of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and the maresin precursor, 14S-hydroperoxy-4Z,7Z,10Z,12E,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (14S-HpDHA), were investigated to determine their product profiles and relative rates in the biosynthesis of the key maresin intermediate, 13S,14S-epoxy-4Z,7Z,9E,11E,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (13S,14S-epoxy-DHA). Both enzymes converted DHA to 14S-HpDHA, with h12-LOX having a 39-fold greater kcat/KM value (14.0 ± 0.8 s-1 μM-1) than that of h15-LOX-1 (0.36 ± 0.08 s-1 μM-1) and a 1.8-fold greater 14S-HpDHA product selectivity, 81 and 46%, respectively. However, h12-LOX was markedly less effective at producing 13S,14S-epoxy-DHA from 14S-HpDHA than h15-LOX-1, with a 4.6-fold smaller kcat/KM value, 0.0024 ± 0.0002 and 0.11 ± 0.006 s-1 μM-1, respectively. This is the first evidence of h15-LOX-1 to catalyze this reaction and reveals a novel in vitro pathway for maresin biosynthesis. In addition, epoxidation of 14S-HpDHA is negatively regulated through allosteric oxylipin binding to h15-LOX-1 and h12-LOX. For h15-LOX-1, 14S-HpDHA (Kd = 6.0 μM), 12S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,10E,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (12S-HETE) (Kd = 3.5 μM), and 14S-hydroxy-7Z,10Z,12E,16Z,19Z-docosapentaenoic acid (14S-HDPAω-3) (Kd = 4.0 μM) were shown to decrease 13S,14S-epoxy-DHA production. h12-LOX was also shown to be allosterically regulated by 14S-HpDHA (Kd = 3.5 μM) and 14S-HDPAω-3 (Kd = 4.0 μM); however, 12S-HETE showed no effect, indicating for the first time an allosteric response by h12-LOX. Finally, 14S-HpDHA inhibited platelet aggregation at a submicrololar concentration, which may have implications in the benefits of diets rich in DHA. These in vitro biosynthetic pathways may help guide in vivo maresin biosynthetic investigations and possibly direct therapeutic interventions.

The reaction of 5 S,15 S-dihydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5,15-diHpETE) with human 5-lipoxygenase (LOX), human platelet 12-LOX, and human reticulocyte 15-LOX-1 was investigated to determine the reactivity and relative rates of producing lipoxins (LXs). 5-LOX does not react with 5,15-diHpETE, although it can produce LXA4 when 15-HpETE is the substrate. In contrast, both 12-LOX and 15-LOX-1 react with 5,15-diHpETE, forming specifically LXB4. For 12-LOX and 5,15-diHpETE, the kinetic parameters are kcat = 0.17 s-1 and kcat/ KM = 0.011 μM-1 s-1 [106- and 1600-fold lower than those for 12-LOX oxygenation of arachidonic acid (AA), respectively]. On the other hand, for 15-LOX-1 the equivalent parameters are kcat = 4.6 s-1 and kcat/ KM = 0.21 μM-1 s-1 (3-fold higher and similar to those for 12-HpETE formation by 15-LOX-1 from AA, respectively). This contrasts with the complete lack of reaction of 15-LOX-2 with 5,15-diHpETE [Green, A. R., et al. (2016) Biochemistry 55, 2832-2840]. Our data indicate that 12-LOX is markedly inferior to 15-LOX-1 in catalyzing the production of LXB4 from 5,15-diHpETE. Platelet aggregation was inhibited by the addition of 5,15-diHpETE, with an IC50 of 1.3 μM; however, LXB4 did not significantly inhibit collagen-mediated platelet activation up to 10 μM. In summary, LXB4 is the primary product of 12-LOX and 15-LOX-1 catalysis, if 5,15-diHpETE is the substrate, with 15-LOX-1 being 20-fold more efficient than 12-LOX. LXA4 is the primary product with 5-LOX but only if 15-HpETE is the substrate. Approximately equal proportions of LXA4 and LXB4 are produced by 12-LOX but only if LTA4 is the substrate, as described previously [Sheppard, K. A., et al. (1992) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1133, 223-234].

The reaction of 5 S,15 S-dihydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5,15-diHpETE) with human 5-lipoxygenase (LOX), human platelet 12-LOX, and human reticulocyte 15-LOX-1 was investigated to determine the reactivity and relative rates of producing lipoxins (LXs). 5-LOX does not react with 5,15-diHpETE, although it can produce LXA4 when 15-HpETE is the substrate. In contrast, both 12-LOX and 15-LOX-1 react with 5,15-diHpETE, forming specifically LXB4. For 12-LOX and 5,15-diHpETE, the kinetic parameters are kcat = 0.17 s-1 and kcat/ KM = 0.011 μM-1 s-1 [106- and 1600-fold lower than those for 12-LOX oxygenation of arachidonic acid (AA), respectively]. On the other hand, for 15-LOX-1 the equivalent parameters are kcat = 4.6 s-1 and kcat/ KM = 0.21 μM-1 s-1 (3-fold higher and similar to those for 12-HpETE formation by 15-LOX-1 from AA, respectively). This contrasts with the complete lack of reaction of 15-LOX-2 with 5,15-diHpETE [Green, A. R., et al. (2016) Biochemistry 55, 2832-2840]. Our data indicate that 12-LOX is markedly inferior to 15-LOX-1 in catalyzing the production of LXB4 from 5,15-diHpETE. Platelet aggregation was inhibited by the addition of 5,15-diHpETE, with an IC50 of 1.3 μM; however, LXB4 did not significantly inhibit collagen-mediated platelet activation up to 10 μM. In summary, LXB4 is the primary product of 12-LOX and 15-LOX-1 catalysis, if 5,15-diHpETE is the substrate, with 15-LOX-1 being 20-fold more efficient than 12-LOX. LXA4 is the primary product with 5-LOX but only if 15-HpETE is the substrate. Approximately equal proportions of LXA4 and LXB4 are produced by 12-LOX but only if LTA4 is the substrate, as described previously [Sheppard, K. A., et al. (1992) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1133, 223-234].

ObjectiveAdequate platelet reactivity is required for maintaining hemostasis. However, excessive platelet reactivity can also lead to the formation of occlusive thrombi. Platelet 12(S)-lipoxygenase (12-LOX), an oxygenase highly expressed in the platelet, has been demonstrated to regulate platelet function and thrombosis ex vivo, supporting a key role for 12-LOX in the regulation of in vivo thrombosis. However, the ability to pharmacologically target 12-LOX in vivo has not been established to date. Here, we studied the effect of the first highly selective 12-LOX inhibitor, ML355, on in vivo thrombosis and hemostasis.Approach and resultsML355 dose-dependently inhibited human platelet aggregation and 12-LOX oxylipin production, as confirmed by mass spectrometry. Interestingly, the antiplatelet effects of ML355 were reversed after exposure to high concentrations of thrombin in vitro. Ex vivo flow chamber assays confirmed that human platelet adhesion and thrombus formation at arterial shear over collagen were attenuated in whole blood treated with ML355 comparable to aspirin. Oral administration of ML355 in mice showed reasonable plasma drug levels by pharmacokinetic assessment. ML355 treatment impaired thrombus growth and vessel occlusion in FeCl3-induced mesenteric and laser-induced cremaster arteriole thrombosis models in mice. Importantly, hemostatic plug formation and bleeding after treatment with ML355 was minimal in mice in response to laser ablation on the saphenous vein or in a cremaster microvasculature laser-induced rupture model.ConclusionsOur data strongly support 12-LOX as a key determinant of platelet reactivity in vivo, and inhibition of platelet 12-LOX with ML355 may represent a new class of antiplatelet therapy.

The dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA)-derived metabolite of 12-lipoxygenase, 12-hydroxy-eicosatrienoic acid (12-HETrE), was recently shown to potently inhibit thrombus formation without prolonging bleeding in murine models. Although 12-HETrE was found to inhibit platelet activation via the Gαs signaling pathway, the Gαs-coupled receptor by which 12-HETrE mediates its antiplatelet effects has yet to be identified. Defining the receptor by which 12-HETrE exerts its effects is key to determining its therapeutic potential as an antiplatelet drug. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine the Gαs-coupled platelet receptor through which 12-HETrE exerts its antiplatelet effects. In this study, we showed that pharmacological inhibition of the prostacyclin (IP) receptor in human platelets or genetic ablation of IP in murine platelets prevented 12-HETrE from blocking aggregation in vitro. Furthermore, the antithrombotic effects of 12-HETrE were significantly diminished in IP knockout mice in vivo. Together these data demonstrate that the antiplatelet effects of 12-HETrE are at least partially dependent on IP signaling. Importantly, this work identified 12-HETrE as a novel regulator of IP signaling that may aid in the rationale for design of novel therapeutics to inhibit platelet function. Additionally, this study provides further insight into the mechanism by which DGLA supplementation inhibits platelets function.

ObjectiveDietary supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids has been widely used for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease in individuals at risk; however, the cardioprotective benefits of polyunsaturated fatty acids remain controversial because of lack of mechanistic and in vivo evidence. We present direct evidence that an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid, dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), exhibits in vivo cardioprotection through 12-lipoxygenase (12-LOX) oxidation of DGLA to its reduced oxidized lipid form, 12(S)-hydroxy-8Z,10E,14Z-eicosatrienoic acid (12(S)-HETrE), inhibiting platelet activation and thrombosis.Approach and resultsDGLA inhibited ex vivo platelet aggregation and Rap1 activation in wild-type mice, but not in mice lacking 12-LOX expression (12-LOX(-/-)). Similarly, wild-type mice treated with DGLA were able to reduce thrombus growth (platelet and fibrin accumulation) after laser-induced injury of the arteriole of the cremaster muscle, but not 12-LOX(-/-) mice, supporting a 12-LOX requirement for mediating the inhibitory effects of DGLA on platelet-mediated thrombus formation. Platelet activation and thrombus formation were also suppressed when directly treated with 12(S)-HETrE. Importantly, 2 hemostatic models, tail bleeding and arteriole rupture of the cremaster muscle, showed no alteration in hemostasis after 12(S)-HETrE treatment. Finally, the mechanism for 12(S)-HETrE protection was shown to be mediated via a Gαs-linked G-protein-coupled receptor pathway in human platelets.ConclusionsThis study provides the direct evidence that an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid, DGLA, inhibits injury-induced thrombosis through its 12-LOX oxylipin, 12(S)-HETrE, which strongly supports the potential cardioprotective benefits of DGLA supplementation through its regulation of platelet function. Furthermore, this is the first evidence of a 12-LOX oxylipin regulating platelet function in a Gs α subunit-linked G-protein-coupled receptor-dependent manner.

Platelets are essential in maintaining hemostasis following inflammation or injury to the vasculature. Dysregulated platelet activity often results in thrombotic complications leading to myocardial infarction and stroke. Activation of the FcγRIIa receptor leads to immune-mediated thrombosis, which is often life threatening in patients undergoing heparin-induced thrombocytopenia or sepsis. Inhibiting FcγRIIa-mediated activation in platelets has been shown to limit thrombosis and is the principal target for prevention of immune-mediated platelet activation. In this study, we show for the first time that platelet 12(S)-lipoxygenase (12-LOX), a highly expressed oxylipin-producing enzyme in the human platelet, is an essential component of FcγRIIa-mediated thrombosis. Pharmacologic inhibition of 12-LOX in human platelets resulted in significant attenuation of FcγRIIa-mediated aggregation. Platelet 12-LOX was shown to be essential for FcγRIIa-induced phospholipase Cγ2 activity leading to activation of calcium mobilization, Rap1 and protein kinase C activation, and subsequent activation of the integrin αIIbβ3. Additionally, platelets from transgenic mice expressing human FcγRIIa but deficient in platelet 12-LOX, failed to form normal platelet aggregates and exhibited deficiencies in Rap1 and αIIbβ3 activation. These results support an essential role for 12-LOX in regulating FcγRIIa-mediated platelet function and identifies 12-LOX as a potential therapeutic target to limit immune-mediated thrombosis.

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT), caused by alterations in venous homeostasis, is the third most common cause of cardiovascular mortality, however, key molecular determinants in venous thrombosis have not been fully elucidated. Several lines of evidence indicate that DVT occurs at the intersection of dysregulated inflammation and coagulation. The enzyme ectonucleoside tri(di)phosphohydrolase (ENTPD1, also known as CD39) is a vascular ecto-apyrase on the surface of leukocytes and the endothelium that inhibits intravascular inflammation and thrombosis by hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds from nucleotides released by activated cells. Here, we evaluated the contribution of CD39 to venous thrombosis in a restricted-flow model of murine inferior vena cava stenosis. CD39 deficiency conferred a greater than 2-fold increase in venous thrombogenesis, characterized by increased leukocyte engagement, neutrophil extracellular trap formation, fibrin, and local activation of tissue factor in the thrombotic milieu. This venous thrombogenesis was orchestrated by increased phosphorylation of the p65 subunit of NF-[kappa]B, activation of the NLR family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, and IL-1[beta] release in CD39-deficient mice. Substantiating these findings, an IL-1[beta]-neutralizing antibody or the IL-1 receptor inhibitor anakinra attenuated the thrombosis risk in CD39- deficient mice. These data demonstrate that IL-1[beta] is a key accelerant of venous thrombo-inflammation, which can be suppressed by CD39. CD39 inhibits in vivo crosstalk between inflammation and coagulation pathways and is a critical vascular checkpoint in venous thrombosis., Introduction The cell-surface enzyme ectonucleoside tri(di)phosphohydrolase-1 (ENTPD1), also known as CD39), is a key molecular factor protecting blood fluidity at the vessel-wall interface by catalyzing the hydrolytic cleavage of phosphodiester [...]

Platelets are essential in maintaining hemostasis following inflammation or injury to the vasculature. Dysregulated platelet activity often results in thrombotic complications leading to myocardial infarction and stroke. Activation of the FcγRIIa receptor leads to immune-mediated thrombosis, which is often life threatening in patients undergoing heparin-induced thrombocytopenia or sepsis. Inhibiting FcγRIIa-mediated activation in platelets has been shown to limit thrombosis and is the principal target for prevention of immune-mediated platelet activation. In this study, we show for the first time that platelet 12(S)-lipoxygenase (12-LOX), a highly expressed oxylipin-producing enzyme in the human platelet, is an essential component of FcγRIIa-mediated thrombosis. Pharmacologic inhibition of 12-LOX in human platelets resulted in significant attenuation of FcγRIIa-mediated aggregation. Platelet 12-LOX was shown to be essential for FcγRIIa-induced phospholipase Cγ2 activity leading to activation of calcium mobilization, Rap1 and protein kinase C activation, and subsequent activation of the integrin αIIbβ3. Additionally, platelets from transgenic mice expressing human FcγRIIa but deficient in platelet 12-LOX, failed to form normal platelet aggregates and exhibited deficiencies in Rap1 and αIIbβ3 activation. These results support an essential role for 12-LOX in regulating FcγRIIa-mediated platelet function and identifies 12-LOX as a potential therapeutic target to limit immune-mediated thrombosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immune complexes consisting of heparin, platelet factor 4 (PF4), and PF4/heparin-reactive antibodies are central to the pathogenesis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). It is as yet unclear what triggers the initial induction of pathogenic antibodies. We identified B cells in peripheral blood of healthy adults that produce PF4/heparin-specific antibodies following in vitro stimulation with proinflammatory molecules containing deoxycytosine-deoxyguanosine (CpG). Similarly, B cells from unmanipulated wild-type mice produced PF4/heparin-specific antibodies following in vitro or in vivo CpG stimulation. Thus, both healthy humans and mice possess preexisting inactive/tolerant PF4/heparin-specific B cells. The findings suggest that breakdown of tolerance leads to PF4/heparin-specific B-cell activation and antibody production in patients developing HIT. Consistent with this concept, mice lacking protein kinase Cδ (PKCδ) that are prone to breakdown of B-cell tolerance produced anti-PF4/heparin antibodies spontaneously. Therefore, breakdown of tolerance can lead to PF4/heparin-specific antibody production, and B-cell tolerance may play an important role in HIT pathogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Dietary supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids has been widely used for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease in individuals at risk; however, the cardioprotective benefits of polyunsaturated fatty acids remain controversial because of lack of mechanistic and in vivo evidence. We present direct evidence that an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid, dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), exhibits in vivo cardioprotection through 12-lipoxygenase (12-LOX) oxidation of DGLA to its reduced oxidized lipid form, 12(S)-hydroxy-8Z,10E,14Z-eicosatrienoic acid (12(S)-HETrE), inhibiting platelet activation and thrombosis., Approach and Results: DGLA inhibited ex vivo platelet aggregation and Rap1 activation in wild-type mice, but not in mice lacking 12-LOX expression (12-LOX(-/-)). Similarly, wild-type mice treated with DGLA were able to reduce thrombus growth (platelet and fibrin accumulation) after laser-induced injury of the arteriole of the cremaster muscle, but not 12-LOX(-/-) mice, supporting a 12-LOX requirement for mediating the inhibitory effects of DGLA on platelet-mediated thrombus formation. Platelet activation and thrombus formation were also suppressed when directly treated with 12(S)-HETrE. Importantly, 2 hemostatic models, tail bleeding and arteriole rupture of the cremaster muscle, showed no alteration in hemostasis after 12(S)-HETrE treatment. Finally, the mechanism for 12(S)-HETrE protection was shown to be mediated via a Gαs-linked G-protein-coupled receptor pathway in human platelets., Conclusions: This study provides the direct evidence that an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid, DGLA, inhibits injury-induced thrombosis through its 12-LOX oxylipin, 12(S)-HETrE, which strongly supports the potential cardioprotective benefits of DGLA supplementation through its regulation of platelet function. Furthermore, this is the first evidence of a 12-LOX oxylipin regulating platelet function in a Gs α subunit-linked G-protein-coupled receptor-dependent manner., (© 2016 American Heart Association, Inc.)