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Climate variability significantly impacts plant growth, making it crucial to monitor ecosystem performance for optimal carbon sequestration, especially in the context of rising atmospheric CO2 levels. Net Primary Productivity (NPP), which measures the net carbon flux between the atmosphere and plants, serves as a key indicator. This study uses the CASA (Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach) model, a radiation use efficiency method, to assess the spatio-temporal dynamics of NPP in Togo from 1987 to 2022 and its climatic drivers. The average annual NPP over 36 years is 4565.31 Kg C ha−1, with notable extremes in 2017 (6312.26 Kg C ha−1) and 1996 (3394.29 Kg C ha−1). Productivity in natural formations increased between 2000 and 2022. While climate change and land use negatively affect Total Production (PT) from 2000 to 2022, they individually enhance NPP variation (58.28% and 188.63%, respectively). NPP shows a strong positive correlation with light use efficiency (r2 = 0.75) and a moderate one with actual evapotranspiration (r2 = 0.43). Precipitation and potential evapotranspiration have weaker correlations (r2 = 0.20; 0.10), and temperature shows almost none (r2 = 0.05). These findings contribute to understanding ecosystem performance, supporting Togo’s climate commitments.

Climate variability significantly impacts plant growth, making it crucial to monitor ecosystem performance for optimal carbon sequestration, especially in the context of rising atmospheric CO2 levels. Net Primary Productivity (NPP), which measures the net carbon flux between the atmosphere and plants, serves as a key indicator. This study uses the CASA (Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach) model, a radiation use efficiency method, to assess the spatio-temporal dynamics of NPP in Togo from 1987 to 2022 and its climatic drivers. The average annual NPP over 36 years is 4565.31 Kg C ha−1, with notable extremes in 2017 (6312.26 Kg C ha−1) and 1996 (3394.29 Kg C ha−1). Productivity in natural formations increased between 2000 and 2022. While climate change and land use negatively affect Total Production (PT) from 2000 to 2022, they individually enhance NPP variation (58.28% and 188.63%, respectively). NPP shows a strong positive correlation with light use efficiency (r2 = 0.75) and a moderate one with actual evapotranspiration (r2 = 0.43). Precipitation and potential evapotranspiration have weaker correlations (r2 = 0.20; 0.10), and temperature shows almost none (r2 = 0.05). These findings contribute to understanding ecosystem performance, supporting Togo's climate commitments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Winter storage of seedlings in freezers reduces the amount of heat sum available for growth in the following growing season compared to seedlings stored outdoors. To test the effects of a reduced growing period on the autumn frost hardiness of the six species most used in Icelandic afforestation, seedlings were stored outdoors or in a freezer during winter. In spring, the seedlings were planted on 24 May, 7 June, 21 June, and 5 July, and the frost hardiness of all treatments was tested on 12 and 26 September. In general, the probability of freezing damage increased with a later planting date, with outdoor-stored seedlings having the lowest probability of damage. The timing of frost events was of great importance; the later the freezing date, the less damage was observed. Growth cessation occurred at different times for each species, and they responded differently to the reduced heat sum. Lodgepole pine and birch accumulated the most frost hardiness in September. Sitka spruce had less autumn frost hardiness than Lutz spruce. Hybrid larch accumulated less frost hardiness than Russian larch and was most sensitive to the reduced heat sum. The results can be used to determine which species should be prioritised in frozen storage with regard to Iceland's short growing season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims: The demand for native ornamentals species has increased and the utilization of novel ornamental crops is a way of promoting their use and care by the community. Considering the high richness of the Tandilia hills, the objective of this study was to survey native plants with potential ornamental value and to propose suggestions for their use in landscaping. M&M: From the floristic survey carried out in a hill area of the south of Tandilia, a list of native species with potential ornamental value was made. For each species, it was recorded: growth habit; ornamental morphological attributes; flowering season and, depending on the environment’s characteristics where they thrive, at least one suggestion for landscaping use was made. Results: A total of 47 species were proposed as ornamental, with predominance of perennial herbs (34), shrubs (11) and spring flowering. Foliage was the most frequent ornamental attribute. The main suggestion use category was: full-sun beds in shallow soils, followed in decreasing order by full-sun beds in deep soils; rock gardens, green roofs or full-sun vertical gardens; partial shadow beds in deep soils; partial shadow beds in shallow soils; shadow beds or shadow vertical gardens ponds. Conclusions: The southern hill areas of Tandilia have native flora of potential ornamental value that could be used in landscaping integrating different plantations, enhancing their cultural and patrimonial value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Essential oils have great commercial importance for the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries. Because they have therapeutic, flavoring and antioxidant properties, due to their active principles. Studies on the form of cultivation, as well as fertilization management are necessary, since information related to the production of secondary metabolites is still insufficient. Thus, the objective of this work was to evaluate the yield, content and composition of rosemary essential oil cultivated with different concentrations of nitrogen and sulfur in the soil. The treatments were distributed in a 4x2 factorial scheme with four nitrogen doses: 105, 210, 315 and 420 mg dm3, combined with two sulfur doses: 32 and 64 mg dm3 and with seven replications, totaling 56 experimental units. According to the results obtained, the combination of doses 420 of N and 64 S provided the best contents and yield of rosemary essential oil. a-pinene and 1,8-cineole had the highest concentrations for all treatments studied, with about 85% to 95% of the total constituents of the oils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria is the property of Agrosavia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Improving the physical properties and water retention of sandy soils is of critical importance in arid and water-scarce regions such as Saudi Arabia. The impacts of organic amendments of different particle sizes coupled with natural clay deposits on improving the soil physio-chemical characteristics, nutrient availability, and growth of Sudan grass were investigated in this study. A loamy sand soil was amended with natural clay deposits at 2.5%, 5.0%, and 10% (w/w) application rates, and in combination with 1.0% (w/w) wheat straw of different particle sizes. The water infiltration, evaporation, and retention characteristics of the amended soil were studied for 9 weeks, and then Sudan grass was grown for 7 weeks. The impacts of the particle size of wheat straw on soil properties and nutrient availability were significant (p < 0.05) when combined with clay deposits. The highest application rate of clay (10%) demonstrated the highest water content (20.63–21.73%), and increased P and K availability to 35.54 and 6980 mg kg−1, respectively, in soil, which were 33% and 88% higher, respectively, compared to the control. Plant N, P, and K concentrations were increased to 0.95%, 0.26%, and 4.33%, respectively, which were 2–3.5-fold higher than the control. Therefore, the integrated application of natural clay deposits and wheat straw of fine particle size could be an effective strategy in improving plant production in water-scarce regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change scenarios predict more frequent and intense drought periods for 2071–2100 in the most important and intensively used agricultural region of Austria, the Marchfeld. Current and predicted lower precipitation scenarios were simulated at a lysimeter station for 9 years. Plant biomass, nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) content, and δ13C and δ15N values of plant compartments were monitored in years 7–9. Aboveground biomass of cereals and grain yield decreased under the predicted scenario, while the quality of grain (% N) was unaffected. Weed and catch crops grown in winter were not affected or were even positively affected, possibly due to the accumulation of nutrients in the soil following the lower plant uptake in summer. Accordingly, low plant δ15N values were mainly attributed to the presence of higher proportion of mineral fertilizer in the predicted precipitation scenario. As expected, water stress significantly increased δ13C values in plants grown over summer, while this was not seen for plants growing over winter. Fertile agricultural soil might ameliorate but cannot outbalance the negative impact of more frequent and intense drought periods.

The depletion of natural resources such as freshwater and cropland makes it necessary to find a new solution for sustainable food production. Aquaponic systems seem to be a great alternative to traditional agriculture, however, there are still many unknowns that need to be explored. It is already known how fish stocking affects water quality in aquaponic systems, but not how it affects the plants’ growth, and especially on chlorophyll fluorescence. In this study, we examined how the density of 0, 2, 4, 8, and 16 stocking fish in five aquaria affects lettuce growth. The first tank was only a hydroponic system with plants but without fish (control). In the remaining four aquaria – 2, 4, 8 and 12 specimens of common carp fry with an average weight of 20 grams (average 8.5–33.2 g) were placed in the aquaponic growing system. Physicochemical analysis of water was conducted to determine the levels of pH, electrical conductivity ( EC), N-NO 3, N-NO 2, N-NH 4, P-PO 4, O 2 and physiological parameters of plants (nitrogen balance index – NBI, chlorophyll content index – CCI, quantum yield – QY, flavonoid content – Flv) were analysed. The results showed that fish stocking density has different effects on plant physiological parameters, but in most cases, was insignificant. It seems that the greater number of fishes and higher density indirectly causes growth inhibition (lower photosynthetic efficiency) due to the increase of N-NO 3 and a decrease of O 2 in the water.

The sweet herb or ka'a he'ẽ in the Guarani language ( Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni) is a native plant of Paraguay, which produces a natural sweetener, 300 times sweeter than sucrose. The consumption of stevia has spread to numerous countries due to its beneficial properties for health. To meet the global demand for stevia, the production must be optimized through the use of improved varieties cultivated in different environmental conditions. This is an important fact, given the challenges related to climate change, such as salinity, opting for varieties that adapt to these conditions generates a positive impact on the dissemination of the crop. This research was aimed to determine the response of the Eirete variety of S. rebaudiana to saline stress conditions by evaluating selected biochemical and growth parameters. Vitroplants propagated in Murashige and Skoog culture medium (MS) supplemented with 0, 25, 50, 75, or 100 mM NaCl were used in the study to identify the concentration that reduced growth by 50% (GR50) and with 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mM NaCl to determine the concentration that caused the death of 50% of the individuals (LD50). After the evaluation of biochemical and growth parameters carried out at the dose corresponding to GR50, a significant decrease in the height, fresh and dry weight of the aerial parts, and fresh weight of the roots was found. Substantial increases in the proline concentration and the root/shoot ratio were also observed. There was no significant alteration of the dry weight of the roots and the content of soluble sugars or chlorophylls. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the development of vitroplants of S. rebaudiana var. Eirete is reduced by increasing concentrations of NaCl in the culture medium; however, our results suggest that stevia plants can be cultivated in moderate saline conditions.

Using large volumes of synthetic chemical fertilizers is a general practice in modern agriculture at a high economic and environmental cost. Biostimulants have become an alternative to this routine due to their ability to stimulate plant physiological processes without polluting soil and water. In Ecuador, however, little research has been carried out on the effect of biostimulants on the yield of crops of agricultural interest. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of foliar application of a biostimulant based on bovine manure vermicompost (VCLB) leachates on physiological variables and the yield of corn, cotton, and peanuts under field conditions and chard and five pepper hybrids in semi-protected cultivation under the agro-climatic conditions of the province of Manabí, Ecuador. The nine experiments carried out with the species and hybrids included various dilutions of VCLB and controls consisting of fertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, depending on the species, and soil without fertilizer. In all species, VCLB-induced plant length, chlorophyll content, and crop yield exhibit equal or higher statistical differences than those achieved under chemical fertilization (NPK). These results demonstrate the potential of this biostimulant as a sustainable alternative to produce these crops, reducing potentially the adverse effects of production on the environment under the tropical conditions of Manabí, Ecuador. We recommend corroborating these results with production-scale research.

Copyright of Environmental & Social Management Journal / Revista de Gestão Social e Ambiental is the property of Environmental & Social Management Journal and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Ensuring the technical and technological possibility of regularly obtaining fresh, high-quality plant production in Antarctic stations is an urgent task of our time. This work is devoted to studying the growth and development of leaf vegetable crops and the main quality indicators of their edible parts when grown in the phytotechnical complex greenhouses at the "Vostok" Antarctic station and at the agrobiopolygon of the Agrophysical Research Institute (AFI). The plants, belonging to 13 varieties of 9 types of leaf vegetable crops (arugula, garden cress, cabbage, mustard, leaf radish, leaf lettuce, amaranth, dill, parsley leaf), were studied during five growing seasons at the "Vostok" station and at the AFI agrobiopolygon under controlled conditions (control). The experimental data obtained demonstrate the high productivity of the phytotechnical complex for most of the investigated crops per unit of useful area, with lower costs of electricity and water consumption per unit of production compared with a number of greenhouses at foreign Antarctic stations and greenhouse complexes with controlled conditions located on other continents. Lettuce crops were the most adapted to the growing conditions at the Antarctic station "Vostok". They did not differ in their evaluated characteristics from the control. All other investigated crops, while not differing in their development rate and quality, had statistically significant (16–61%) decreases in their yield per 1 m2 per year. This may demonstrate the difference in the "genotype–environment" interaction in plants grown at the Antarctic station and AFI agrobiopolygon, probably due to the different barometric pressure and partial pressure of oxygen at the two locations. The positive psychological effects of the greenhouses were identified along with nutritional and other qualities of the plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The huge development of climatic change highly affects our crop production and soil fertility. Also, the rise in the uncontrolled, excessive use of chemical fertilizers diminishes the soil prosperity and generates pollutants, threatening all environmental life forms, including us. Replacement of these chemical fertilizers with natural ones is becoming an inevitable environmental strategy. In our study, we evaluated the responses of Pisum sativum L. to the action of single species and consortiums of plant growth-promoting bacteria (Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium, and Bacillus cerkularice) in clay and new reclaimed soil types in terms of phenotype, yield components, and physiological and biochemical responses. Data analysis showed single or consortium microbial inoculation significantly increased the measured traits under clay and calcareous sandy soils compared to the control. Shoot physiological and biochemical activities, and seed biochemical activities were significantly enhanced with the inoculation of pea seeds with three types of bacteria in both soil types. The bud numbers, fresh weight, and seeds' dry weight increased in seeds treated with A. chroococcum and B. megaterium in the sandy soil. Taken together, these findings suggested that the inoculation of plants with PGP bacteria could be used to diminish the implementation of chemical fertilizer and improve the goodness of agricultural products. These findings expand the understanding of the responsive mechanism of microbial inoculation under different soil types, especially at physiological and biochemical levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arbutus andrachne, the Greek strawberry tree, is an evergreen shrub or small tree in the family Ericaceae native to the Mediterranean basin, and is a valuable phytogenetic resource. In the context of sustainable exploitation of A. andrachne, four Greek natural populations of species were selected and a detailed germination protocol, molecular analysis, and cultivation practices were reported herein for the first time. The 1 month period of cold stratification or the treatment with gibberellic acid resulted in similar patterns of seed germination over a wide temperature range for all four populations. Differences among the four populations were observed in five of six morphological traits measured in 1-year-old seedlings. The 2-year-old plants grown in plastic bags (2.26 L in volume) showed superior growth rates. Foliage, but not roots, of 2-year-old seedlings supplemented with mineral fertilizers had higher fresh masses than untreated seedlings. The four A. andrachne accessions exhibited more genetic variability within than among populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Agronomy Science is the property of University of Life Sciences in Lublin and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The depletion of natural resources such as freshwater and cropland makes it necessary to find a new solution for sustainable food production. Aquaponic systems seem to be a great alternative to traditional agriculture, however, there are still many unknowns that need to be explored. It is already known how fish stocking affects water quality in aquaponic systems, but not how it affects the plants' growth, and especially on chlorophyll fluorescence. In this study, we examined how the density of 0, 2, 4, 8, and 16 stocking fish in five aquaria affects lettuce growth. The first tank was only a hydroponic system with plants but without fish (control). In the remaining four aquaria - 2, 4, 8 and 12 specimens of common carp fry with an average weight of 20 grams (average 8.5-33.2 g) were placed in the aquaponic growing system. Physicochemical analysis of water was conducted to determine the levels of pH, electrical conductivity (EC), N-NO3, N-NO2, N-NH4, P-PO4, O2 and physiological parameters of plants (nitrogen balance index - NBI, chlorophyll content index - CCI, quantum yield - QY, flavonoid content - Flv) were analysed. The results showed that fish stocking density has different effects on plant physiological parameters, but in most cases, was insignificant. It seems that the greater number of fishes and higher density indirectly causes growth inhibition (lower photosynthetic efficiency) due to the increase of N-NO3 and a decrease of O2 in the water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of familiar green soybean, edamame is a vegetable that popularly chosen by the richest consumer. The reducing inorganic fertilizers can be realized gradually by transforming the farming from conventional to organic. Related to transformation, we observed the suitable combination of inorganic and organic fertilizers for the edamame growth and production. By a randomized block design, seven combinations of inorganic fertilizers (150 kg/ha Urea, 150 kg/ha SP-36, 100 kg/ha KCl) and organic fertilizers (compost) were applied. Three repeatations was adopted for each treatment and 30 plants per plot was used. The analysis of variance and Tukey HSD at 5% error were chosen. Based on the result, the combination of inorganic fertilizers and compost effect four plant growth and development variables such as the plant height, the number of leaves, the number of productive branches, and the time to produce 50% of a flower. The application of inorganic fertilizers at 50% and 75% combined with compost 10 t/ha increased the plant height, the number of productive branches, and the number of leaves. The number of seeded pods and the pod weight are not affected by all combinations of treatments.

Red chili is one of the important commodities with increasing demand. However, the quality, continuity of supply, and quantity have not been realized to meet domestic market demand. Increasing growth, yield, and quality can be pursued through superior varieties, and the effort to increase crop productivity is the application of various doses of potassium fertilizer. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effect of various varieties and doses of potassium fertilizer on the growth, yield, and quality of red chili. The split-plot experimental design consisting of two factors was also used. The first factor is the variety, as the main plot consisting of UNPAD CB2, Tanjung 2, and Lingga. The second factor was the dose of potassium fertilizer as sub-plots which consisted of four levels, namely 0, 100, 200, and 300 kg/ha KCl. The results showed an interaction between variety and dose of potassium fertilizer on plant height at 8 weeks after planting (WAP), stem diameter at 8 WAP, and leaf area index at 9 WAP. Meanwhile, UNPAD CB2 showed the best results for 6 WAP plant height, fruit weight per plant, number of fruits per plant, fruit length, dihydrocapsaicin, total capsaicinoid, and scoville heat unit. Potassium fertilizer doses of 200 and 300 kg/ha KCl showed high yields for stem diameters of 6 WAP.

The energy crisis in Europe and Poland caused by the conflict in Ukraine has renewed the debate in some countries about the wisdom of abandoning the use of local fossil fuels. The rise in gas and oil prices with little change in the cost of extracting lignite from open pit mines has led to a renewed consideration of lignite as the cheapest source of energy. This is not entirely true, as the level of costs at power plants ignores many external costs that are not included in the costs of energy producers, but are borne by the general public or other parties. One such cost is the external costs incurred by agriculture as a result of open pit lignite mining and the associated depression funnels. The Bełchatów lignite open pit is the deepest open pit in Europe and is expected to be in operation by 2038. The aim of the study was to assess the external costs that farmers will incur as a result of further open pit mining of brown call from the Bełchatów deposit, i.e., between 2023 and 2038 as well as in the 16-year extended period of restoration of water relations around the open pit. The decrease in crop yields and animal numbers was estimated in a comparative analysis, which compared changes in the yields of selected plants and animals in the area affected by the open pit to those in neighboring areas that were not affected. The analysis showed that the external costs to be borne by agriculture as a result of the further exploitation of the Bełchatów deposit will amount to an average of EUR 2.90 billion, and, depending on the calculation variant, from EUR 2.51 billion to EUR 3.14 billion. Including this amount in the cost of electricity production would result in an increase of EUR 9.11·MWh−1, which is 18.8% of the average wholesale price of electricity in Poland in 2017–2021. On the one hand, the increased consumption of lignite in electricity production, which is currently observed and may last for several years, may shorten the life of the open pit by up to 2 years. Shortening the mining period by one year, assuming that all the coal in the deposit is mined, will reduce the external costs for agriculture by about EUR 185 million, i.e., EUR 0.58·MWh−1. On the other hand, the increase in European Emissions Trading System (ETS) prices, the decrease in gas prices and the increase in energy production from renewable energy source (RES) will make lignite power generation profitable only during the periods with the highest prices, so that by 2038 lignite will not be mined in its entirety. Every 10 Gg of coal that will not be mined by 2038 will result in an increase in external costs in agriculture per MWh of EUR 0.23·MWh−1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture is the second-highest, after energy use, source of greenhouse gas emissions, which are released from soils and animal digestion processes and as a result of energy consumption at various stages of agricultural production. However, changes in the management of agricultural systems may mitigate the negative impact of this sector on the atmosphere and climate. This paper presents a literature review on energy consumption in agriculture and the potential of agricultural crop production to assist in mitigation of global warming by increasing absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere. The issue was considered in the context of managing the cultivation of main, catch and cover crops. The potential of carbon sequestration in the above- and below-ground biomass of selected crops was analyzed. It was stated that, depending on the species, main crops can sequester up to 113 CO2 ha−1 yr−1 in whole biomass, while catch or cover crops can sequester up to 14.80 CO2 ha−1 yr−1 and 0.17 CO2 ha−1 yr−1 in the above- and below-ground biomass, respectively. The benefits of the spread of catch or cover crops, such as improvement of soil quality (leading to an increase in primary crop yield by even as much as 65%) and a phytosanitary effect, as well as the barriers that limit the use of catch crops, including the problems with matching crop species to climate and soil conditions and the risk of reducing farmers' income, were considered. The results of the review show that catch crops can assimilate an additional amount of 4 to 6 tonnes CO2 ha−1 yr−1, and thus, spreading of catch crops is an effective way to reduce the climate impact of agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ekonomika is the property of Society of Economists 'Ekonomika' and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

There is a need to develop production technology that effectively uses limited water and other resources to create a stable food supply in space. Aquaponics, which combine hydroponics and aquaculture, is expected to be an efficient system for producing crops and animal proteins. This system sustains the reuse of water and balances nutrient elements between both cultures using dissolved elements in fish excrement for plant growth. To evaluate the effect of fish density on biological production and nitrogen usage efficiency in aquaponics combining lettuce hydroponics and loach aquaculture, we investigated the growth performance of lettuce plants and loach fish. We focused on the balance of nutrient elements, especially nitrogen flow in the system. As a result, we found that lettuce grew in aquaponics with a half-strength standard solution with an optimal combination of the number of plants and fish as well as hydroponics with a standard solution. Increasing the density of loach fish and lettuce plants can increase the total biological production of fish and plants. However, it will be important to control both fish and plant densities to increase nitrogen recovery in aquaponics with a high fish density.

Scientific facts about the relationships between the goals are indispensable for the rational social discourse on solving the various conflicting goals on the way to sustainable crop production. Therefore, the German Society for Agronomy has compiled scientific findings on the topics of biodiversity, climate relevance and climate resilience, nutrient management, crop protection, soil protection and production of renewable raw materials, and identified the existing need for research. After an executive summary that highlights the findings, the subject areas are explained in detail. The purpose of this paper is not to make recommendations for policy-making, but to support the public debate by providing factual information.

Agriculture has been historically one of the main sectors of the Ukrainian economy. Considered for centuries as a “bread basket of Europe”. In recent years Ukraine’s agriculture has been consistently improving and has been the only part of the country’s economy to buck the recession, but Ukraine is still a country with relatively large untapped agricultural potentials. The study concerns the production of the main crops in Ukraine in the years 1992-2020 witch a short-term prediction until 2027. The analysis covered the following variables: area harvested, share in arable land, yield and production. The analysis showed that plant production in Ukraine in 1992-2020 was characterized by a significant growth dynamics. This was especially true for yields of wheat and potato and cultivation area, yields and production of grain maize, rape, sunflower and soybean. On the other hand, the cultivation area and production of sugar beet, barley, buckwheat, rye and oats were decreased. Moreover, the tendencies of changes taking place in the discussed years allowed us to conclude that the importance of Ukraine in this respect will increase. However, the war in this country will reduce the production of the species in question.

The present paper investigates the viscoelastic stress-strain responses of laboratory and plant produced warm mix asphalt mixtures containing basalt fiber dispersed reinforcement. The investigated processes and mixture components were evaluated for their efficacy in producing highly performing asphalt mixtures with decreased mixing and compaction temperatures. Surface course asphalt concrete (AC-S 11 mm) and high modulus asphalt concrete (HMAC 22 mm) conventionally and using a warm mix asphalt technique with foamed bitumen and a bio-derived fluxing additive. The warm mixtures included lowered production temperature (by 10 °C) and lowered compaction temperatures (by 15 °C and 30 °C). The complex stiffness moduli of the mixtures were assessed under cyclic loading tests at combinations of four temperatures and five loading frequencies. It was found that the warm produced mixtures were characterized by lower dynamic moduli than the reference mixtures in the whole spectrum of loading conditions, however, the mixtures compacted at the 30 °C lower temperature performed better than the mixtures compacted at 15 °C lower temperature, specifically when highest testing temperatures are considered. The differences in the performance of plant and laboratory produced mixtures were ascertained to be nonsignificant. It was concluded that the differences in stiffness of hot mix and warm mixtures can be attributed to the inherent properties of foamed bitumen mixtures and that these differences should shrink in time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) had a profound impact on the world's health and economy. Although the end of the pandemic may come in 2023, it is generally believed that the virus will not be completely eradicated. Most likely, the disease will become an endemicity. The rapid development of vaccines of different types (mRNA, subunit protein, inactivated virus, etc.) and some other antiviral drugs (Remdesivir, Olumiant, Paxlovid, etc.) has provided effectiveness in reducing COVID-19's impact worldwide. However, the circulating SARS-CoV-2 virus has been constantly mutating with the emergence of multiple variants, which makes control of COVID-19 difficult. There is still a pressing need for developing more effective antiviral drugs to fight against the disease. Plants have provided a promising production platform for both bioactive chemical compounds (small molecules) and recombinant therapeutics (big molecules). Plants naturally produce a diverse range of bioactive compounds as secondary metabolites, such as alkaloids, terpenoids/terpenes and polyphenols, which are a rich source of countless antiviral compounds. Plants can also be genetically engineered to produce valuable recombinant therapeutics. This molecular farming in plants has an unprecedented opportunity for developing vaccines, antibodies, and other biologics for pandemic diseases because of its potential advantages, such as low cost, safety, and high production volume. This review summarizes the latest advancements in plant-derived drugs used to combat COVID-19 and discusses the prospects and challenges of the plant-based production platform for antiviral agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sweet herb or ka’a he’ẽ in the Guarani language (Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni) is a native plant of Paraguay, which produces a natural sweetener, 300 times sweeter than sucrose. The consumption of stevia has spread to numerous countries due to its beneficial properties for health. To meet the global demand for stevia, the production must be optimized through the use of improved varieties cultivated in different environmental conditions. This is an important fact, given the challenges related to climate change, such as salinity, opting for varieties that adapt to these conditions generates a positive impact on the dissemination of the crop. This research was aimed to determine the response of the Eirete variety of S. rebaudiana to saline stress conditions by evaluating selected biochemical and growth parameters. Vitroplants propagated in Murashige and Skoog culture medium (MS) supplemented with 0, 25, 50, 75, or 100 mM NaCl were used in the study to identify the concentration that reduced growth by 50% (GR50) and with 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mM NaCl to determine the concentration that caused the death of 50% of the individuals (LD50). After the evaluation of biochemical and growth parameters carried out at the dose corresponding to GR50, a significant decrease in the height, fresh and dry weight of the aerial parts, and fresh weight of the roots was found. Substantial increases in the proline concentration and the root/shoot ratio were also observed. There was no significant alteration of the dry weight of the roots and the content of soluble sugars or chlorophylls. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the development of vitroplants of S. rebaudiana var. Eirete is reduced by increasing concentrations of NaCl in the culture medium; however, our results suggest that stevia plants can be cultivated in moderate saline conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Chapingo Serie Ciencias Forestales is the property of Universidad Autonoma Chapingo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The huge development of climatic change highly affects our crop production and soil fertility. Also, the rise in the uncontrolled, excessive use of chemical fertilizers diminishes the soil prosperity and generates pollutants, threatening all environmental life forms, including us. Replacement of these chemical fertilizers with natural ones is becoming an inevitable environmental strategy. In our study, we evaluated the responses of Pisum sativum L. to the action of single species and consortiums of plant growth-promoting bacteria (Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium, and Bacillus cerkularice) in clay and new reclaimed soil types in terms of phenotype, yield components, and physiological and biochemical responses. Data analysis showed single or consortium microbial inoculation significantly increased the measured traits under clay and calcareous sandy soils compared to the control. Shoot physiological and biochemical activities, and seed biochemical activities were significantly enhanced with the inoculation of pea seeds with three types of bacteria in both soil types. The bud numbers, fresh weight, and seeds’ dry weight increased in seeds treated with A. chroococcum and B. megaterium in the sandy soil. Taken together, these findings suggested that the inoculation of plants with PGP bacteria could be used to diminish the implementation of chemical fertilizer and improve the goodness of agricultural products. These findings expand the understanding of the responsive mechanism of microbial inoculation under different soil types, especially at physiological and biochemical levels.

Global warming has changed plant phenology and induced variations in the productivity of terrestrial ecosystems. Recent studies have shown inconsistent results regarding the influence of phenological changes on plant production. We carried out a three-year in situ experiment in Inner Mongolia and used Stipa krylovii as an example to examine the phenological changes and their importance to plant production under changes in temperature and precipitation. We found that precipitation, temperature, and their interactions had no significant impact on the start of the growing season (SOS) or vegetative growth length (VGL). Precipitation had significant impacts on the end of the growing season (EOS), the length of the growing season (LOS), and reproductive growth length (RGL). The precipitation addition treatments of T2.0W + 50% (2 °C warming and 50% precipitation addition) and T1.5W + 50% (1.5 °C warming and 50% precipitation addition) significantly delayed the EOS by 6.7 d and 5.4 d, and significantly prolonged the LOS by 9.3 d and 9.3 d, respectively. Precipitation significantly changed the net CO2 assimilation rate (Pn) of the heading stage. There was no significant difference in the dry mass among all the treatments. The SOS and VGL had significant negative impacts on the dry mass of Stipa krylovii, while temperature, precipitation, and the EOS had no significant direct effect on it. Our results imply that the SOS was more important than the EOS in regulating the plant production of Stipa krylovii. This study can facilitate the understanding of the response of productivity to phenological dynamics and improve the accuracy of simulating the terrestrial ecosystem carbon budget. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sewage sludge ash (SSA) as a secondary phosphorus (P) source may help to conserve global rock phosphate deposits if used in the base fertilization of soilless growing media. Plant availability of SSA-P was studied in a pot experiment with marigolds in a peat-based growing medium of contrasting pH (4.5, 6.0). Six SSAs were included in the study and compared to water-soluble monocalcium phosphate (MCP) and rock phosphate (RockP). In addition to the efficacy of SSA-P, calcium chloride + diethylenetriaminepentaacetate (CAT) and calcium-acetate-lactate (CAL), as commonly used extractants in Germany to analyze plant-available P in growing media, were tested in terms of their ability to predict plant P uptake. No SSA reached the relative P use efficiency (rPUE) observed for MCP. However, at a growing medium pH of 4.5, the average rPUE for SSA was 70% of the MCP rPUE. Compared to RockP, at a growing medium pH of 6.0, SSAs resulted in an rPUE of nearly the same low level. In contrast, at pH 4.5, the rPUE from SSAs was mostly lower than that from RockP, and there were differences in rPUE among SSA origins. Therefore, in addition to a variation in particle size distribution, there might be differences in the P-bearing phase. Sewage sludge ashes represent a promising substitute for primary P sources only in crops requiring a low pH in the growing medium. The extractants CAT and CAL, on their own or in combination, did not reflect plant P uptake from SSA. To improve the prediction of plant-available SSA-P, solvent modifications or additional extractants might be promising and should be subjected to further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arbutus andrachne, the Greek strawberry tree, is an evergreen shrub or small tree in the family Ericaceae native to the Mediterranean basin, and is a valuable phytogenetic resource. In the context of sustainable exploitation of A. andrachne, four Greek natural populations of species were selected and a detailed germination protocol, molecular analysis, and cultivation practices were reported herein for the first time. The 1 month period of cold stratification or the treatment with gibberellic acid resulted in similar patterns of seed germination over a wide temperature range for all four populations. Differences among the four populations were observed in five of six morphological traits measured in 1-year-old seedlings. The 2-year-old plants grown in plastic bags (2.26 L in volume) showed superior growth rates. Foliage, but not roots, of 2-year-old seedlings supplemented with mineral fertilizers had higher fresh masses than untreated seedlings. The four A. andrachne accessions exhibited more genetic variability within than among populations.

From the perspective of sustainable agri-food production, farmers need to make the best use of natural resources. Biochar can be a solution to adopt a more sustainable way of farming. Despite its environmental and agronomic advantages, biochar has a low plant nutrient value. This study evaluated the effect of biochar and the co-application of an inorganic or organic fertilizer on the soil properties, growth and nutrient content of Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L. var. cycla, Caryophyllales order, Chenopodiaceae family). The experiment consisted of two factors: biochar type (from vineyard prunings and wood chips) and fertilizing source (ammonium nitrate and vermicompost). Biochars were applied at a 2% rate (w/w) and fertilizers at a dose providing 280 kg N ha−1. The soil properties (pH, EC, extractable anions, cations, total N, Corg and C/N ratio) were measured before the plants were transplanted and at the end of the growing cycle, along with the growth parameters (leaf number, length and fresh weight) of each leaf cut, the productive parameters (total number of leaves and yield per plant) at the end of the growing cycle and the leaf content of anions (NO3−, P2O43−, SO42−), cations (NH4+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) and total N. The co-application of biochar and a fertilizing source had a positive effect on soil properties and leaf nutrient content. Vermicompost increased plant growth by 22% and plant yield by 116%, in contrast to biochar, and increased limited leaf NO3− accumulation by about 81% in comparison to ammonium nitrate. The co-application of biochar and vermicompost is the better option to increase Swiss chard yield while preserving the nutritional and health qualities of the product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Annals of the Polish Association of Agricultural & Agribusiness Economists is the property of Polish Association of Agricultural & Agribusiness Economists and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Caatinga is the property of Revista Caatinga and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Dendrobium officinale, an important medicinal plant of the genus Dendrobium in Orchidaceae family, has been used as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for nearly thousands of years. Here, we report the first chromosome-level reference genome of D. officinale, based on PacBio long-reads, Illumina short-reads and Hi-C data. The high-quality assembled genome is 1.23 Gb long, with contig N50 of 1.44 Mb. A total of 93.53% genome sequences were assembled into 19 pseudochromosomes with a super scaffold N50 of 63.07 Mb. Through comparative genomic analysis, we explored the expanded gene families of D. officinale, and also their impact on environmental adaptation and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. We further performed detailed transcriptional analysis of D. officinale, and identified the candidate genes involved in the biosynthesis of three main active ingredients, including polysaccharides, alkaloids and flavonoids. In addition, the MODIFYING WALL LIGNIN-1 (MWL1) gene, which inferred from Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) based on the resequencing date from D. officinale and five related species and their morphologic features, may contribute to the plant production (yield of stems) of D. officinale. Therefore, the high-quality reference genome reported in this study could benefits functional genomics research and molecular breeding of D. officinale.

The study performed a checklist of publications on species with available seed information and identified their issues and volumes. These publications occurred during the existence of the online versions of Revista Brasileira de Sementes (Brazilian Journal of Seeds) and the Journal of Seed Science. This data survey intends to represent a foundation for other studies and contribute to the knowledge of native plant species in Brazil. The search focused on the seeds of plants native to Brazil, indicating high negligence regarding the knowledge of Brazilian biodiversity because of the total number of articles published in 33 issues of Revista Brasileira de Sementes between 2002-2012 and the Journal of Seed Science, a substitute of the former journal, from 2012 to the first semester of 2020, with 28 issues published, but only 208 studies addressing seeds of plant species native to Brazil.

The present study was conducted to improve root, shoots growth, and seedling quality index of milkweed (Calotropis procera) using biopriming bacteria Pseudomonas putida (Trevisan) strain 169. An experiment was performed with two levels of inoculum including control and rhizospheric bacteria and three growth periods of one, two, and three months, using a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with five replications. Biopriming results showed that seedlings obtained from bacterial priming in one-month, two-month, and three-month periods compared to the control, increased 707.5, 1823.1 and 47.6% in root volume; 654.6, 1798.6 and 40.3% in root area; 270.6, 38.5, and 6.6% in fresh weight of stem and 58.5, 19.3 and 2.5% in seedling height, respectively. The highest value of the quality index was observed in seedlings inoculated with the bacterium in the third month. The results of Pearson correlation showed that the parameters of aerial parts such as height, collar diameter, and stem weight were significantly correlated with each other, except root length and root dry weight. Results revealed that the priming of rhizosphere bacteria used in this study had a positive effect on improving the growth parameters of milkweed seedlings. Therefore, it is suggested that more research be done on the coexistence of rhizosphere bacteria in different plants and the interaction of their effects so that this technique can be used more for plant production and desertification.

Sustainable crop production requires an efficient usage of fossil energy. This six-year study on a silt loam soil (chernozem) analysed the energy efficiency of four tillage systems (mouldboard plough 25-30 cm, deep conservation tillage 35 cm, shallow conservation tillage 8-10 cm, no-tillage). Fuel consumption, total energy input (made up of both direct and indirect input), grain of maize yield, energy output, net-energy output, energy intensity and energy use efficiency were considered. The input rates of fertiliser, herbicides and seeds were set constant; measured values of fuel consumption were used for all tillage operations. Total fuel consumption for maize (Zea mays L.) production was 81.6, 81.5, 69.5 and 53.2 L/ha for the four tillage systems. Between 60% and 64% of the total energy input (17.0-17.4 GJ/ha) was indirect energy (seeds, fertiliser, herbicides, machinery). The share of fertiliser energy of the total energy input was 36% on average across all tillage treatments. Grain drying was the second highest energy consumer with about 22%. Grain yield and energy output were mainly determined by the year. The tillage effect on yield and energy efficiency was smaller than the growing year effect. Over all six years, maize produced in the no-tillage system reached the highest energy efficiency.

The energy crisis in Europe and Poland caused by the conflict in Ukraine has renewed the debate in some countries about the wisdom of abandoning the use of local fossil fuels. The rise in gas and oil prices with little change in the cost of extracting lignite from open pit mines has led to a renewed consideration of lignite as the cheapest source of energy. This is not entirely true, as the level of costs at power plants ignores many external costs that are not included in the costs of energy producers, but are borne by the general public or other parties. One such cost is the external costs incurred by agriculture as a result of open pit lignite mining and the associated depression funnels. The Bełchatów lignite open pit is the deepest open pit in Europe and is expected to be in operation by 2038. The aim of the study was to assess the external costs that farmers will incur as a result of further open pit mining of brown call from the Bełchatów deposit, i.e., between 2023 and 2038 as well as in the 16-year extended period of restoration of water relations around the open pit. The decrease in crop yields and animal numbers was estimated in a comparative analysis, which compared changes in the yields of selected plants and animals in the area affected by the open pit to those in neighboring areas that were not affected. The analysis showed that the external costs to be borne by agriculture as a result of the further exploitation of the Bełchatów deposit will amount to an average of EUR 2.90 billion, and, depending on the calculation variant, from EUR 2.51 billion to EUR 3.14 billion. Including this amount in the cost of electricity production would result in an increase of EUR 9.11·MWh−1, which is 18.8% of the average wholesale price of electricity in Poland in 2017–2021. On the one hand, the increased consumption of lignite in electricity production, which is currently observed and may last for several years, may shorten the life of the open pit by up to 2 years. Shortening the mining period by one year, assuming that all the coal in the deposit is mined, will reduce the external costs for agriculture by about EUR 185 million, i.e., EUR 0.58·MWh−1. On the other hand, the increase in European Emissions Trading System (ETS) prices, the decrease in gas prices and the increase in energy production from renewable energy source (RES) will make lignite power generation profitable only during the periods with the highest prices, so that by 2038 lignite will not be mined in its entirety. Every 10 Gg of coal that will not be mined by 2038 will result in an increase in external costs in agriculture per MWh of EUR 0.23·MWh−1.

Agriculture is the second-highest, after energy use, source of greenhouse gas emissions, which are released from soils and animal digestion processes and as a result of energy consumption at various stages of agricultural production. However, changes in the management of agricultural systems may mitigate the negative impact of this sector on the atmosphere and climate. This paper presents a literature review on energy consumption in agriculture and the potential of agricultural crop production to assist in mitigation of global warming by increasing absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere. The issue was considered in the context of managing the cultivation of main, catch and cover crops. The potential of carbon sequestration in the above- and below-ground biomass of selected crops was analyzed. It was stated that, depending on the species, main crops can sequester up to 113 CO2 ha−1 yr−1 in whole biomass, while catch or cover crops can sequester up to 14.80 CO2 ha−1 yr−1 and 0.17 CO2 ha−1 yr−1 in the above- and below-ground biomass, respectively. The benefits of the spread of catch or cover crops, such as improvement of soil quality (leading to an increase in primary crop yield by even as much as 65%) and a phytosanitary effect, as well as the barriers that limit the use of catch crops, including the problems with matching crop species to climate and soil conditions and the risk of reducing farmers’ income, were considered. The results of the review show that catch crops can assimilate an additional amount of 4 to 6 tonnes CO2 ha−1 yr−1, and thus, spreading of catch crops is an effective way to reduce the climate impact of agriculture.

Buckwheat is an alternative crop known for its many beneficial effects on our health. Fungi are an important cause of plant diseases and food spoilage, often posing a threat to humans and animals. This study reports the effects of low-pressure cold plasma treatment on decontamination and germination of common (CB) and Tartary buckwheat (TB) grains. Both plasma glow and afterglow were applied. The glow treatment was more effective in decontamination: initial contamination was reduced to less than 30% in CB and 10% in TB. Fungal diversity was also affected as only a few genera persisted after the glow treatment; however, it also significantly reduced or even ceased the germination capacity of both buckwheat species. Detailed plasma characterisation by optical spectroscopy revealed extensive etching of outer layers as well as cotyledons. Afterglow treatment resulted in a lower reduction of initial fungal contamination (up to 30% in CB and up to 50% in TB) and had less impact on fungal diversity but did not drastically affect germination: 60–75% of grains still germinated even after few minutes of treatment. The vacuum conditions alone did not affect the fungal population or the germination despite an extensive release of water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Argentine Native Plant Nursery Network (REVINA) links different social actors involved in native plant production, their valorization and the restoration of Argentina's ecosystems. It is essential to strengthen the network in order to meet the country's restoration goals, considering that the nursery community will generate the plant species that will be the primary inputs for restoration projects. In this paper we study the native plant nursery network, the nursery community and the plants they produce, in order to strengthen restoration projects in Argentina through the survey of the participants of the annual meetings of the REVINA in the period 2016-2020. We observed the network has grown remarkably since its creation, reflecting the increasing interest in native plants in recent years. Most of the plant species grown in the nurseries belonged to the Fabaceae family, are woody, and show a strong bias towards species from the centre-east of the country, in line with the number of nurseries concentrated in that region. A great number of nurseries have a small production, although, over the years, larger nurseries joined the network. The perspective used allowed us to obtain a first list of native plant nurseries and the species they cultivate. Finally, some aspects are proposed in order to strengthen this network of actors and thus be able to fulfill the restoration initiatives of the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable cropping systems require efficient usage of fossil energy. This study performed on a long-term field experiment in the Pannonian Basis investigated the energy efficiency of four tillage systems (mouldboard plough (MP), deep conservation tillage (CTd), shallow conservation tillage (CTs) and no-tillage (NT)) for sugar beet and soybean production, taking fuel consumption, total energy input (made up of both direct and indirect inputs), crop yield, energy output, net-energy output, energy intensity and energy use efficiency into account. The input rates of fertiliser, chemical plant protection, and seeds were set constant across years; whereas measured values of fuel consumption were used for all tillage treatments. NT required a considerably lower energy input than MP and CTd as no fuel is needed for tillage and just slightly more fuel for additional spraying of glyphosate. Anyhow, the energy efficiency parameters did not differ between tillage treatments, as theses parameters were mainly determined by energy output, which was considerably higher than the energy input. However, year effects on the energy efficiency were observed for both crops. Nitrogen fertilisation and diesel fuel consumption were identified as the most energy-intensive inputs. Consequently, the energy input for sugar beet was higher than that for soybean, which was identified as a low-input crop. But sugar beet attained a more than 4 times higher net-energy output, a 2.5 times higher energy use efficiency, and an energy intensity for yield production of less than 3 times those of soybean.

This study aimed to evaluate clones of ‘Riesling Itálico’, ‘Chardonnay’, ‘Merlot’ and ‘Cabernet Franc’ grapevines that best adapt to the edaphoclimatic conditions in Veranópolis, RS. The experiment was carried out at the State Center for Diagnosis and Research in Fruticulture - DDPA/SEAPDR. Three 'Riesling Itálico' clones (ISV-1, RI12V23, VCR-365), four 'Chardonnay' clones (INRA-95, INRA-132, INRA-548, VCR-6), four 'Merlot' clones (INRA-181, INRA-347, VCR-13, VCR-494) and seven 'Cabernet Franc' clones (INRA-212, INRA-214, ISV-8, ISV-101, VCR-2, VCR- 4, VCR-10) were evaluated. The experimental design was randomized blocks, with 4 replications and 10 plants per plot. The clones were evaluated in the 2020/2021 cycle for phenology (budburst and maturation dates), production (kg/plant, ton/ha weight/bunch) and fruit quality (soluble solids-SS, titratable acidity-AT, pH). The results showed the potentiality of the clone RI12V23 for 'Riesling Itálico', INRA-132 for 'Chardonnay', VCR-13 for 'Merlot' and VCR-10 for 'Cabernet Franc'. The 'Riesling Itálico' and 'Chardonnay' clones showed greater production precocity than the 'Merlot' and 'Cabernet Franc' clones.

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Plant Science is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)