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This paper investigates how different institutions of Loba communities of the Upper Mustang work together and facilitate the community to cope with the environmental dynamics in the region. The indigenous institutions are place-based, and their evolution is concerned with reducing vulnerability and enhancing the resilience capacity of place-based communities to cope with and adapt to local natural and socio-cultural environmental dynamics. The paper is based on anthropological fieldwork. Qualitative data were collected by applying observation and interviews. The paper presents the role of the galbo, (Lo King), ghenba (Village Chief), Lama (Monk), and dhongba (Household) as local institutions that act in close relation and make community-level decisions. The findings reveal that the King is seen as the leader whose governance best suited to the local natural environment, cultural practices, and economy. The Lama plays a major role in reinforcing local rules, while the Ghenba is an agent who mediates the Lo King and people in materializing rules and operationalizing institutional mechanisms. The Dhongbas are units of production of the local social-ecosystem that are entitled to use local resources within the context of the institution's agreed rules, norms, and values. These local institutions are cooperating well, successfully regulating, managing, and protecting agricultural, forest, and pasture lands, and maintaining the monuments in Lo-manthang for centuries. However, recent social-environmental dynamics such as climate change, migration, and modernization are reducing the relevancies of traditional norms and practices. Nevertheless, the institutions are working hard to continue their existence by frequently modifying their rules and norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA) is recognized as a means to mainstream climate change adaptation into the development plans at the local level. The GoN developed NAPA and climate policy prior to LAPA and currently in the process of developing NAP. The implementation of the local adaptation plans has started in western Nepal under the NCCSP. This paper analyzes the LAPA initiatives and process focusing on agriculture including assessment of local climatic contexts, vulnerabilities, adaptations and barriers. Moreover, the paper presents the adaptation cases that has enhanced the awareness and adaptive capacity at the local level. The assessments followed the qualitative research, review and analysis using the participatory and socially inclusive approach. The adaptations were analyzed for their effectiveness in enhancing the adaptive capacity of poor and vulnerable. Furthermore, the institutional mechanism suitable for the LAPA were also assessed and analyzed. The paper concludes the appropriate procedure for LAPA design along with the potential actors and their roles. This paper also suggests the appropriate local government unit (LGU) for mainstreaming adaptation into the development process at the local level in the new governance system. Furthermore, the capacities of the communities and stakeholders need to be strengthened for effective implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main theme of this paper is to investigate the socio-economic impacts of climate change and adaptation; by comparing the losses with and without land reallocation for major staple foods as a key strategy of climate change adaptation in the farming system. In doing so, a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model for Nepal has been developed, incorporating the allocation of land for several agricultural crops, including the major staple foods, with specification of a nested set of constant elasticity of transformation (CET) functional forms. The set of land transformation elasticities facilitates switching from one crop to another; based on their agronomic characteristics and degree of climate change impacts. Using Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) data and Living Standard Survey (LSS) data, a social accounting matrix (SAM) for Nepal is developed and used to simulate three scenarios of climate change and land reallocation. The simulation results in the long run depict farmers as more likely to use land for crops that are comparatively less impacted by climate change, such as paddy. The results further show that land reallocation reduces the income inequality and poverty among rural and urban households by significantly controlling the income losses of marginal farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The relationship that mountain communities have with global capitalism are complex, being mediated by a diverse topography and ecology, both of which provide opportunities for capital accumulation, while also isolating older, “pre‐capitalist” modes of production. This paper takes a case study valley from Nepal's eastern hills, tracing over two centuries of agrarian change and evolving interactions between “adivasi” and “semi‐feudal” economic formations with capitalism. In recent years, the expansion of markets, rising demand for cash, and climate stress have solidified migrant labour as a core component of livelihoods, and the primary mechanism of surplus appropriation from the hill peasantry. Through a focus on three altitudinal zones, however, it is demonstrated how the trajectory of this transformation, including the interactions with persisting pre‐capitalist formations, is mediated by both political–economic processes and the local agro‐ecological context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global climate models predict temperature rises and changes in precipitation regimes that will shift regional climate zones and influence the viability of agricultural crops in Nepal. Understanding the influence of climate change on local climates and the suitability of specific sites for the production of individual crop types at present and in the future is crucial to increasing local crop resilience and ensuring the long-term viability of plantations—especially of high-value, perennial tree crops that require significant investment. This paper focuses on two cash crops, Macadamia and Juglans. A literature review summarises data on temperature, precipitation, and other macro- and microclimatic requirements of both genera. On this basis, we investigate the short- and long-term suitability of areas in Nepal for production of the two crops by means of a spatial model based on extensive in situ measurements, meteorological data, and climatic layers from the WorldClim dataset. Finally, we track changes in potential cultivation area under four Representative Concentration Pathways. Results show that climatic requirements for the cultivation of Macadamia and Juglans are fulfilled across a large part of Nepal at present and in the future: the total suitable area for both trees shrinks only marginally under all four scenarios. However, suitable areas shift considerably in spatial and altitudinal terms, meaning that some currently productive areas will become unproductive in the future, while currently unproductive ones will become productive. We conclude that the consideration of macro- and microclimatic changes in agricultural planning is essential to long-term agricultural success in Nepal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Where power lies and how it is conceived in studies of governance and institutions is often not discussed. This is due to the ubiquitous nature of the topic. Power is shaped by a variety of institutional factors, including the architecture of governing structures, questions of scale and level, and access to key resources including knowledge and capital, among other factors. To date, there are relatively few tools available that allow policy makers, researchers, and development practitioners to render these power dynamics explicit and thus take steps to mitigate the potentially deleterious effects of power orientations. This paper proposes a methodology, multi-level stakeholder influence mapping (MSIM), for elucidating power dynamics between actors in complex system regimes. MSIM departs from existing power mapping techniques in that it relies on individual interviews conducted across multiple actor levels and utilizes a participatory mapping process for shared system boundary critique. MSIM was piloted in Nepal's agricultural climate change adaptation regime with actors from the central, regional, and local operational levels. The results suggest that without proper consideration of the role of power in agricultural adaptation regimes, the resulting interventions will likely be insufficient in catalyzing adaptation pathways and moderating the negative impacts of climate change. Furthermore, power analyses produced from the perspective of a single actor level or respondent type can risk sub optimization of adaptation outcomes and can misdirect the lobbying efforts of those agencies utilizing mapping outputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on cultural analysis and how people are coping with new situation created by climate change in production of millet. Changes relating to climate change are observed; perceived and understood on a local level. This is an important area of study for anthropologists and it is interest of climate scientists as well. This paper is based on anthropological analysis on climate change effects on finger millet production in Argal VDC of Baglung district, West of Nepal. Millet is a staple food of people of Argal and most of Hill people of Nepal. Millet is not only staple food and associated with nutrition of people. It's also associated with rituals during production and as well as during consumption. Increasing temperature, changing rainfall patterns, extreme weather events are linked with climate change which has direct effect on life of all people but also millet production and ritual activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human perceptions and concerns about the implications of climate change have a profound importance for adaptation to and mitigation of the impacts of climate change at various scales and in different economic and social sectors in a given geographical landscape. Although studies on public perceptions of climate change are increasing globally, they are still scant pertaining to the Himalayan region of Nepal. In order to fill this gap, this study aimed to understand individual and community perceptions of climate change in the Lower Mustang region of Nepal, where apple farming and agricultural activities have been significantly impacted by climate change over the last 30–40 years. The data collection for the study included a cross-sectional survey of 200 farmers with a structured questionnaire, seven focus group discussions, and 26 key informant interviews, which were administered in four rural municipalities: Kagbeni, Jomsom, Marpha, and Tukuche. Results of the study indicated that a majority of the participants experienced an increase in temperature with warmer summers (99% of the participants surveyed), a decrease in snowfall (100%), and variable rainfall patterns (87%). However, the warming climate-enhanced diversification of vegetables in Lower Mustang, and the changes in climatic patterns over the years have affected almost all the agricultural systems of the region. In particular, apple farming in lower elevations has been negatively impacted due to decreasing snowfall, necessitating an urgent attention to develop sustainable adaptation strategies in order to minimize the deleterious impacts of the changing climatic patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change and climate variability drive rapid glacier melt and snowpack loss, extreme precipitation and temperature events, and alteration of water availability in the Himalayas. There is increasing observational evidence of climate change impacts on water resource availability and agricultural productivity in the central Himalayan region. Here, we assess the farmers' perception of climate change and its impacts on agriculture in western Nepal. We interviewed 554 households and conducted eight focus group discussions to collect farmers' perceptions of temperature and rainfall characteristics, water availability, onset and duration of different seasons, and the impacts of such changes on their lives and livelihoods. Our results indicate that the farmers' perceptions of rising annual and summer temperatures are consistent with observations. Perception, however, contradicts observed trends in winter temperature, as well as annual, monsoon, and winter precipitation. In addition, farmers are increasingly facing incidences of extreme events, including rainfall, floods, landslides, and droughts. These hazards often impact agricultural production, reducing household income and exacerbating the economic impacts on subsistence farmers. Integrated assessment of farmers' perceptions and hydrometeorological observations is crucial to improving climate change impact assessment and informing the design of mitigation and adaptation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agrarian distress—the experience wherein sustaining an agricultural livelihood becomes increasingly challenging—is well documented in South Asia. Another regional trend is the feminization of agriculture or an increase in women's work and decision‐making in agriculture. Scholars have recently linked these two phenomena, demonstrating that agrarian distress results in the movement of men out of agriculture, driving women into the sector. Yet what remains underexplored is the relationship between climate change, a contributor to agrarian distress, and the feminization of agriculture. To examine this, we link socioeconomic and demographic data from India, Bangladesh, and Nepal to high‐resolution gridded climate data. We then estimate a set of multivariate regression models to explore linkages between recent temperature and precipitation variability from historical norms and the likelihood that a woman works in agriculture. Results suggest that hotter‐than‐normal conditions in the year prior to the survey are associated with an increased likelihood of working in agriculture among women. This relationship is particularly strong among married women and women with less than primary education. While more research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms between climate change and the feminization of agriculture, our findings suggest a need for gender‐sensitive climate change adaptation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides empirical evidence of agricultural adaptation strategies being adopted in the Mid-Hills regions of Nepal in response to climate change. Farmers were interviewed across four districts and climate change observations were reported, most notably those of increased temperatures and unpredictable precipitation. Agricultural adaptation strategies adopted in response to climate change were varied, with agroforestry and organic farming being the most popular practices. Most adaptation strategies were thought to be development-facing actions to reduce vulnerability, rather than specifically addressing climate change. From this research it is evident that indigenous knowledge, financial support and increased accessibility all play a pivotal role for successful climate change adaptation in the Mid-Hills. This case study provides valuable evidence-based research of autonomous adaptation techniques in a highly climate-vulnerable location of Nepal. Recommendations are made for donors to learn from best-practice and adopt local knowledge when investing in climate change adaptation strategies to most effectively reduce the vulnerability of some of the world's poorest communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation has become a key priority in dealing with climate change issues. However, successful implementation of climate change adaptation entails substantial financial investment. This study examines differences in Nepalese farming households' willingness to contribute to the implementation of adaptation programs across monetary and non-monetary modes of payments. To this end, we undertake discrete choice experiments with monetary payment and labor contributions as the payment vehicles. We find that farmers are interested in participating in and financially supporting the implementation of climate change adaptation initiatives that increase the availability of climate-adaptive crop varieties, improve soil quality, expand irrigation and build farmers' capacity in terms of climate-adaptive farming. Factors influencing farmers' participation in adaptation programs include age, income, access to extension services, size of land holdings, number of farm parcels, climate change perception and climate change experience. Furthermore, the findings reveal significant heterogeneity in the farmers' preferences across three agro-ecological regions in Nepal. Our findings also strengthen the methodological validity of the results of the choice experiment, which indicated that farmers are willing to pay significantly more when asked to make a payment in terms of a labor contribution compared to a monetary payment for the implementation of adaptation programs. Overall, the findings of this study justify the relevance of implementing agricultural adaptation programs in Nepal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changes in climate, associated hazards, local adaptations in agriculture, and socioeconomic factors affecting adaptation were investigated using data from a large survey of 2310 households (HHs) in the Koshi River Basin (KRB), Nepal. More than 80% of HHs had perceived changes in climate in the 10 years preceding the survey, and 20-40% had perceived increases in the occurrence of droughts, dry spells, floods, and livestock diseases. Around 36-45% of crop-growing HHs perceived a decline in the production of staple crops such as paddy, wheat, maize, and millets, which was mainly attributed to climate change and related hazards. The decline in local food production meant that HH dependence on external sources for food had increased. Only 32% of HHs had taken some form of adaptive actions in agriculture to address these challenges; actions included not planting certain crops, introducing new crops, changing farming practices, not rearing certain livestock species, and investing in irrigation. The factors affecting the likelihood of a household undertaking adaptive actions included literacy of the head of household, household size, size of owned agricultural land, diversification of income sources, and insurance. Based on these findings, the study has suggested some approaches in the KRB which could contribute to building agricultural resilience to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article talks about climate change adaptation challenges faced by Nepal. Topics discussed include the country's majorly agricultural livelihood being vulnerable to rainfall and temperature fluctuations, which are increasing in severity due to climate change on one hand, and Nepalis being highly mobile with an estimated 27.7% of gross domestic product coming from foreign remittances which reduces their dependence on agriculture on the other.

Agricultural innovations are important, especially as climatic conditions around the world have been subject to increasing change over the past decades. Through innovation, farmers can adapt to the changing conditions and secure their livelihoods. In Nepal, 75% of the population depends upon agriculture, which is impacted by climate change, migration, and feminisation. In this context, it is important to understand what drives a household to start agricultural innovation to increase its economic benefits and resilience in the face of multiple pressures. We sought a comprehensive understanding of these drivers by investigating the determinants of rural innovation, using macadamia and walnut trees as examples of novel, potentially commercialised cash crops. After conducting an in-depth household survey that divided farmers into those who cultivate nuts and those who do not, we analysed the socio-economic and cultural characteristics of each category using statistical tests and a multiple logistic regression. Our results show that the individual variables of ethnicity, wealth and "years of experience with fruit trees" correlate significantly with nut cultivation. The results of the multiple regression suggest that "years of experience with tree cultivation" and "having an income through fruit trees" most influence nut cultivation. Overall, we conclude that nut cultivation is an accepted and promising cash crop mostly grown by wealthier households, and that, for poor, landless, or female-headed households to benefit, alternative business models and new policies must be explored and developed. We further suggest that this is also true for other nut or other cash crop trees that have gained recent attention in Nepal such as almond, hazelnut, or pecan farming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the farmers’ understandings and experiences of climate change. Information was collected through focus group discussions and a household survey in three districts (Banke, Chitwan, and Morang) of Nepal. Farmers have perceived climate change as increased variability of rainfall, increased temperature, increased drought frequency and period, changes in monsoon time, reduction of annual rainfall, decreased rainfall frequency and duration per event, decreased winter rainfall, and increased frequency of erratic rainfall. The significant effects of climate change include limited water availability, decreasing soil moisture, high fluctuation in crop yield, increased incidence of pests and diseases, existence of unidentified pests, emergence of new plant species, environmental pollution, high risk in fish farming, reduced livestock health, decreasing earthworm population, shortening life cycle of crops, low fruiting in fruit trees, fruits cracking, changes in flowering and fruiting time on fruit trees, and increased sand in soils due to flood. Farmers also have noticed the positive effect of climate change on automatic control of some pests (e.g. whiteflies in paddy). Responses of farmers to climate change include crop diversification, shifting of agricultural calendar, crop rotation, changes in crop varieties, investment on plastic tunnels, mulching to maintain soil moisture, adoption traditional pest management, increased use of compost and farmyard manure in the field, provision of drainage canals in the field, agroforestry practices, and rainwater harvesting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A rapid change in climate patterns potentially driven by global warming is considered to be greatest threats to agriculture. However, little is known about how the change in climate concretely affects agricultural production especially in Nepal with respect to seasons and regions of different altitudes. To examine this issue, we seek to empirically identify the impact of climatic variation on agricultural yield and its variability by utilizing the data of rice, wheat and climate variables in the central region of Nepal. The main focus is on whether the impacts vary across seasons, altitudes and the types of crops. For this purpose, we employ a stochastic production function approach by controlling a novel set of season-wise climatic and geographical variables. The result shows that an increase in the variance of both temperature and rainfall has adverse effects on crop productions in general. On the other hand, a change in the mean levels of the temperature and rainfall induces heterogeneous impacts, which can be considered beneficial, harmful or negligible, depending on the altitudes and the kinds of crops. These results imply that adaptation strategies must be tailor-made in Nepalese agriculture, considering growing seasons, altitudes and the types of crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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