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Thailand's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) aims to reduce 20 to 25% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions with respect to the projected reference level of NDC in 2030, respectively, in its unconditional and conditional scenarios. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that limiting global temperature rise to 1.5°C would require net zero carbon dioxide emissions globally by around 2050. Thailand's current energy system is highly fossil fuel dependent and requires enormous transformations to achieve more stringent GHG emission reduction targets beyond its NDC. This paper seeks to estimate the level and the intensities of Thailand's energy system and their economy-wide effects post-2030 under the business as usual and 16 GHG emission reduction scenarios ranging from 30 to 100% by 2050. A computable general equilibrium analysis using the AIM/Hub model is employed to estimate the macroeconomic impacts of meeting the unconditional and conditional emission reductions of Thailand's NDC in 2030 along with varying GHG emission reductions in 2050. Results show that renewables – constituting solar, wind, biomass and hydro and carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies account for more than 95% in the power generation mix by 2050, if 100% GHG emission reduction from the 2010 level is to be achieved. Electricity generation based on biomass both with and without CCS will occupy a major share in the investments by 2050 in all the conditional and unconditional NDC scenarios. A rapid increase in carbon sequestration occurs from 2040 onwards through the deployment of CCS and bioenergy with CCS (BECCS) technologies in all the conditional and unconditional NDC scenarios. Carbon prices lie in the range of 3.4–266.2 US$/tCO2eq during 2025–2050 to achieve 100% GHG emission reductions in 2050. Imposition of early stringent mitigation target lowers the carbon prices in the conditional scenarios towards 2050 when compared to the unconditional scenarios. The rapid uptake of CCS, energy efficiency improvements and electrification of the end-use technologies are identified to be the key measures to transform the energy system of Thailand. By 2050, the Thai economy would face a higher fall in both the GDP and household consumption in the unconditional scenarios than those in the conditional scenarios at all levels of GHG emission reduction. Results indicate that early mitigation efforts can be less costly than the delayed ones in the long-term. The cumulative investment needed to achieve decarbonization in Thailand is estimated to exceed 355 billion US$2005 over the period 2010–2050 in the 100% GHG reduction scenarios. The transmission and distribution investments in the power sector need to increase by 30–35% to attain 100% GHG emission reductions during 2010–2050. The trade deficit improves by up to 23–29% in the various GHG mitigation scenarios in 2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Reliable individual membrane pore wetting model is constructed and verified. • Overall membrane wetting conditions are investigated and analyzed by experiments. • Some suggestions are proposed to effectively avoid membrane wetting for practical application. In recent years, global climate change caused by excessive CO 2 emissions has attracted wide attention. Within this context, CO 2 capture by gas–liquid contactor based on membranes is one of the most promising technologies for post-combustion CO 2 capture. However, mass transfer deterioration due to membrane wetting becomes one of barriers for its development. In this paper, based on Laplace-Young equation, reliable individual membrane pore wetting model is constructed to demonstrate detailed wetting process inside membrane pores, which is verified by molecular dynamic (MD) numerical simulation. The wetting conditions of ceramic membrane with 1.26 µm average pore size and 51.4° contact angle are investigated in experiments. The results show that neither average nor maximum pore diameters can accurately predict liquid and bubble breakthrough pressures of ceramic membrane. The actual liquid and bubble breakthrough pressures of ceramic membrane are slightly lower than critical liquid and bubble breakthrough pressures corresponding to the maximum pore size. The wetting state of ceramic membrane can be determined by combining individual pore wetting model and actual membrane pore distribution. In addition, for practical application process of CO 2 capture by gas–liquid contactor with ceramic membrane, some suggestions to avoid membrane wetting are proposed for selection of ceramic membrane and system operation perspective. The membrane wetting analysis method proposed in this paper not only contributes to future applications of ceramic membrane in CO 2 capture, but is also widely applicable to other gas–liquid contactors in membrane separation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]