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Mechanical forces regulate muscle development, hypertrophy, and homeostasis. Force-transmitting structures allow mechanotransduction at the sarcolemma, cytoskeleton, and nuclear envelope. There is growing evidence that Yes-associated protein (YAP) serves as a nuclear relay of mechanical signals and can induce a range of downstream signaling cascades. Dystrophin is a sarcolemma-associated protein, and its absence underlies the pathology in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. We tested the hypothesis that the absence of dystrophin in muscle would result in reduced YAP signaling in response to loading. Following in vivo contractile loading in muscles of healthy (wild-type; WT) mice and mice lacking dystrophin (mdx), we performed Western blots of whole and fractionated muscle homogenates to examine the ratio of phospho (cytoplasmic) YAP to total YAP and nuclear YAP, respectively. We show that in vivo contractile loading induced a robust increase in YAP expression and its nuclear localization in WT muscles. Surprisingly, in mdx muscles, active YAP expression was constitutively elevated and unresponsive to load. Results from qRT-PCR analysis support the hyperactivation of YAP in vivo in mdx muscles, as evidenced by increased gene expression of YAP downstream targets. In vitro assays of isolated myofibers plated on substrates with high stiffness showed YAP nuclear labeling for both genotypes, indicating functional YAP signaling in mdx muscles. We conclude that while YAP signaling can occur in the absence of dystrophin, dystrophic muscles have altered mechanotransduction, whereby constitutively active YAP results in a failure to respond to load, which could be attributed to the increased state of "pre-stress" with increased cytoskeletal and extracellular matrix stiffness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significance: Mechanical activation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) occurs in striated muscle and affects Ca2+ signaling and contractile function. ROS/RNS signaling is tightly controlled, spatially compartmentalized, and source specific. Recent Advances: Here, we review the evidence that within the contracting myocyte, the trans-membrane protein NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2) is the primary source of ROS generated during contraction. We also review a newly characterized signaling cascade in cardiac and skeletal muscle in which the microtubule network acts as a mechanotransduction element that activates Nox2-dependent ROS generation during mechanical stretch, a pathway termed X-ROS signaling. Critical Issues: In the heart, X-ROS acts locally and affects the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ release channels (ryanodine receptors) and tunes Ca2+ signaling during physiological behavior, but excessive X-ROS can promote Ca2+-dependent arrhythmias in pathology. In skeletal muscle, X-ROS sensitizes Ca2+-permeable sarcolemmal 'transient receptor potential' channels, a pathway that is critical for sustaining SR load during repetitive contractions, but when in excess, it is maladaptive in diseases such as Duchenne Musclar dystrophy. Future Directions: New advances in ROS/RNS detection as well as molecular manipulation of signaling pathways will provide critical new mechanistic insights into the details of X-ROS signaling. These efforts will undoubtedly reveal new avenues for therapeutic intervention in the numerous diseases of striated muscle in which altered mechanoactivation of ROS/RNS production has been identified. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 20, 929-936. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Entry of enveloped viruses into cells is mediated by viral fusogenic proteins that drive membrane rearrangements needed for fusion between viral and target membranes. Skeletal muscle development also requires membrane fusion events between progenitor cells to form multinucleated myofibers. Myomaker and Myomerger are muscle-specific cell fusogens but do not structurally or functionally resemble classical viral fusogens. We asked whether the muscle fusogens could functionally substitute for viral fusogens, despite their structural distinctiveness, and fuse viruses to cells. We report that engineering of Myomaker and Myomerger on the membrane of enveloped viruses leads to specific transduction of skeletal muscle. We also demonstrate that locally and systemically injected virions pseudotyped with the muscle fusogens can deliver μDystrophin to skeletal muscle of a mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy and alleviate pathology. Through harnessing the intrinsic properties of myogenic membranes, we establish a platform for delivery of therapeutic material to skeletal muscle. [Display omitted] • Skeletal muscle fusogens can replace viral fusogens and fuse viruses to cells • Lentiviruses pseudotyped with Mymk+Mymg specifically transduce skeletal muscle • Mymk+Mymg-lentiviral transduction requires Myomaker expression in recipient cells • Systemic administration of Mymk+Mymg-lentiviruses delivers therapeutic cargo By swapping viral fusogenic proteins (which help viruses fuse with and enter host cells) with mammalian skeletal muscle fusogenic proteins, it is possible to create viral vectors specifically targeted to skeletal muscle for gene therapy of Duchenne muscular dystrophy in mouse models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]