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This article puts forward a hybrid model predictive control (H-MPC) for an inner-interleaved hybrid multilevel converter (IHMC). The sign patterns of the original and shifted reference vectors in the original and virtual space vector diagrams (VSVDs) are used, respectively, to realize the phase-disposition pulsewidth modulation (PWM) and determine the low-frequency switching states. Then, the three adjacent vectors are selected in the second-layer VSVD and the optimal current tracking is safeguarded by the duty cycle optimization of the three adjacent vectors. Finally, through applying the phase-shifted PWM to the two interleaved legs, a constant and doubled equivalent switching frequency can be achieved, which further paves the way for dc-link and floating capacitor voltages balancing and circulating current mitigation with the use of the straightforward duty cycle adjustments. The proposed H-MPC enables the decoupling of the low- and high-frequency stages in the IHMC and also reduces both output current ripples and computational burden while achieving a constant switching frequency simultaneously. Comprehensive simulation and experimental studies on an all silicon carbide prototype verify the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Power module heat dissipation with spatial inhomogeneity and induced nonuniform temperature distribution presents a challenging concern for system reliability due to thermo-mechanical stresses. These reliability challenges are especially important for nonplanar designs using 3-D packaging principles. Here, we develop a heat spreader thermal switch capable of actively reducing temperature gradients between silicon carbide (SiC) devices in a three-level T-type power converter, which can change depending on electronic operating conditions. The heat spreader thermal switch consists of a stainless-steel (SS) heat spreader and a copper sliding switch embedded within the spreader. Heat transfer from the SiC devices and within the spreader can be controlled by moving the slider between positions within the spreader. To understand heat transfer mechanisms and design the heat spreader thermal switch, we conducted 3-D finite element method simulations to calculate the minimum attainable temperature difference between SiC devices. We used the finite element simulation to quantify the reduction in junction temperature swing during dynamic operation and coupled the results to the Coffin–Manson reliability model to quantify lifetime to failure. We integrated the heat spreader thermal switch with one phase of a three-phase T-type converter and demonstrated isothermalization at different working conditions. At 2.4-kW converter power, each hot SiC device dissipated 4.7 W of heat, resulting in a device case temperature of 43 °C, with each cold SiC device dissipating 1.7 W at 38 °C. The device-to-device temperature difference was decreased from 5 °C to 0 °C by moving the switch a distance of 20 mm. Finite volume method (FVM) simulations of the conjugate heat transfer problem validate the experimental results and support analysis of key performance parameters. This work demonstrates successful isothermalization of a power converter with an active heat spreader thermal switch and develops simulation and design guidelines for successful electro-thermal codesign and implementation of thermal switches for other electronics applications for which isothermalization and enhanced device reliability is a key issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A series of novel externally reconfigurable power electronic modules (RPEMs) are invented to increase the flexibility of power modules and their application purposes. In this article, the concept of RPEMs, their switching arrangements, and power-module-based architectural design are demonstrated. An RPEM is then designed, analyzed through simulations, and compared with the conventional fixed-configuration power electronic modules. The sizes of the power modules and used power terminals are kept similar to avoid any differences in power loop inductance values solely due to various trace pad sizes. In addition, similar gate/source pads and signal pins are used for all of the designed power modules to have constant switching dynamics in all modules. The comparison results show that the internal parasitic inductance and performance are still comparable with the conventional modules despite having high configurability. The designed RPEM and a conventional full-bridge (FB) power module are fabricated and characterized. The experimental tests show that the difference between the overshoot voltages on both RPEM and FB power modules is less than 2%. Such flexibility without compromising the power module performance decreases the engineering time for designing different power modules for various power electronic converters; hence, the production speed can be improved while decreasing the overall module cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the design and demonstration of an all silicon carbide (SiC) 2×250 kW dual inverter for heavy-duty traction applications. Through the use of a formal electrothermal-control co-design approach, the maximum power density of the proposed inverter system is 60 kW/L, which is accomplished by. More specifically, to analyze the thermal performance of the inverter, a lumped thermal model is developed based on the characteristics of the power modules and the cold plate. To analyze the complicated interaction between the power losses and module junction temperatures, a closed-loop iterative estimation scheme is proposed to estimate the inverter power loss and module junction temperature. Based on the proposed thermal model and estimation scheme, a detailed optimization procedure on the selection of switching frequency and dc-link capacitor is presented to maximize power density. Furthermore, design optimization of the busbar was conducted to minimize the stray inductance, thus reducing the voltage overshoot during switching transients. Comprehensive experimental studies were performed on a physical converter prototype built based on the optimization results, which validate both the effectiveness of the presented design approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The silicon carbide (SiC) devices have faster switching speed than that of the conventional silicon (Si) devices, which however may cause excessive device voltage overshoot. Larger gate resistance can help to restrain the overshoot, it however slows down the switching speed and increases switching losses. There are other methods that can mitigate the voltage overshoot, e.g., using low-inductance busbars, adding snubber circuits, etc. In this article, the busbar design for a 250-kW SiC three-level T-type inverter is investigated. The current commutation loops (CCLs) are first analyzed using a single-phase equivalent circuit. Then the detailed busbar design methods, especially a 3-D busbar design concept, are proposed to select the optimal stacking order for the multilayer laminated busbar and to address constraints posed by the physical terminal arrangements of SiC modules and dc-link capacitors. The stray inductance in each CCL is extracted via a finite element analysis and validated on the actual inverter busbar prototypes using an impedance analyzer. To further minimize the busbar stray inductance, a hybrid busbar structure with printed circuit board based buffer circuit using high-frequency decoupling capacitors is designed and evaluated in this article. Finally, the effectiveness of the designed busbars as well as the buffer circuit are validated using experimental studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With high-temperature power devices available, the support circuitry required for efficient operation, such as a gate driver, is needed as part of a complete high-temperature solution. The design of an integrated silicon carbide (SiC) gate driver using a 1.2-μm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process is presented. Adjustable drive strength is added to facilitate a minimal external component requirement for high-temperature power modules and lays the groundwork for dynamic adjustment of drive strength. The adjustable drive strength feature demonstrates a capability of reducing overshoot and controlling dv/dt dynamically. Measurement of the gate driver was performed driving a power mosfet gate over temperature, exceeding 500 °C. High-speed and high-voltage room temperature evaluation is provided, demonstrating a system capable of high performance over temperature. The driver accomplishes better than 75 ns of rise and fall time driving the Cree CPM3-0900-0065B from room temperature to over 500 °C indicating that it will be ideal for integration into an all-SiC power module where driver, protection circuits, and power devices are fabricated in SiC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents functional high-temperature analog circuits in silicon carbide bipolar technology. The circuits will collectively form the analog signal conditioning block for a wireless telemetry system in an extreme environment (above 400°C). The signal conditioning block is composed of a low dc gain operational amplifier, a negative voltage charge pump (CP), an RC oscillator, and a voltage regulator. The circuits are tested up to 450°C. The measured open-loop gain for the amplifier at 450°C is 30 dB. The regulator provides approximately 9-V output at 450°C for a fixed load current of up to 18 mA and an applied reference of 4.5 V. The negative voltage CP requires an oscillating signal at its input, which is provided by the RC cross-coupled oscillator. The CP provides about −5 V at 450°C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a three-dimensional (3-D) wire bondless power module using silicon carbide (SiC) power devices. Commercially available SiC power devices are designed for wire bonding. Wire bonds have an inherent parasitic inductance that limits high-frequency switching. This results in an underutilization of the full potential of SiC power devices, which have very low switching losses at high frequencies. Wire-bonded power modules run into a performance ceiling when it comes to ultrafast switching. This paper strives to provide a solution to this issue, which involves reconfiguring a commercially available bare die SiC power device into a flip-chip-capable device. A wire bondless SiC Schottky diode package was demonstrated and its performance was contrasted with a conventional wire-bonded package. A 24% reduction in the ON-state resistance was observed in the wire bondless package. As a next step, wire bondless SiC MOSFET packages were developed and tested in a half-bridge configuration in a highly integrated 3-D arrangement. This approach departs from the conventional concept of a power module—demonstrating a direct-bonded-copper-less and baseplate-less half-bridge switching cell. Double-pulse tests conducted on the cell showed >3× reduction in the parasitic inductance of the 3-D cell as compared with a conventional wire-bonded module. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a silicon carbide pulse width modulation (PWM) signal generator in the 1.2 μm HiTSiC CMOS process developed by Raytheon Systems Ltd. The design features a 6-b binary input, which allows for setting a system's duty cycle. The results presented in this paper utilize a field programmable gate array board in the test setup to dynamically set the duty cycle by controlling each bit. A control current is also available to give the user added flexibility for tuning the duty cycle. Experimental results show the duty cycle range of the PWM generator to be between 4.7% and 95.2% at 400 °C. Sustained operation of the circuit is demonstrated over a period of 50 h at 300 °C. Finally, the PWM generator is evaluated in the operation of a boost converter. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article presents the plan and initial feasibility studies for an Integrated Wire Bond-less Power Module. Contemporary power modules are moving toward unprecedented levels of power density. The ball has been set rolling by a drastic reduction in the size of bare die power devices owing to the advent of wide bandgap semiconductors such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride. SiC has capabilities of operating at much higher temperatures and faster switching speeds compared with its silicon counterparts, while being a fraction of their size. However, electronic packaging technology has not kept pace with these developments. High-performance packaging technologies do exist in isolation, but there has been limited success in integrating these disparate efforts into a single high-performance package of sufficient reliability. This article lays the foundation for an electronic package designed to completely leverage the benefits of SiC semiconductor technology, with a focus on high reliability and fast switching capability. The interconnections between the gate drive circuitry and the power devices were implemented using a low temperature cofired ceramic interposer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decade, significant effort has been expended toward the development of reliable, high-temperature integrated circuits. Designs based on a variety of active semiconductor devices including junction field-effect transistors and metal-oxidesemiconductor (MOS) field-effect transistors have been pursued and demonstrated. More recently, advances in low-power complementary MOS (CMOS) devices have enabled the development of highly integrated digital, analog, and mixed-signal integrated circuits. The results of elevated temperature testing (as high as 500°C) of several building block circuits for extended periods (up to 100 h) are presented. These designs, created using the Raytheon UK's HiTSiC® CMOS process, present the densest, lowest-power integrated circuit technology capable of operating at extreme temperatures for any period. Based on these results, Venus nominal temperature (470°C) transistor models and gate-level timing models were created using parasitic extracted simulations. The complete CMOS digital gate library is suitable for logic synthesis and lays the foundation for complex integrated circuits, such as a microcontroller. A 16-bit microcontroller, based on the OpenMSP 16-bit core, is demonstrated through physical design and simulation in SiC-CMOS, with an eye for Venus as well as terrestrial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need for dependable digital circuitry with the capability to operate reliably in high-temperature environments has been increasing drastically in applications such as automobile, aerospace, oil exploration, and power electronics. However, wide temperature swings significantly alter the threshold voltage of individual transistors, which adversely affects circuit timing in traditional synchronous designs. Such timing changes may in turn violates the setup and hold times of the clocked components, leading to potential circuit failure. This paper presents a complex digital integrated circuit design methodology using both synchronous and asynchronous logic for comparison in a young silicon carbide (SiC) design process developed by Raytheon UK. Seventeen circuits were designed, fabricated, and tested with results showing correct operation at temperatures at and above the target temperature of 300 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A compact model for SiC Power MOSFETs is presented. The model features a physical description of the channel current and internal capacitances and has been validated for dc, CV, and switching characteristics with measured data from a 1200-V, 20-A SiC power MOSFET in a temperature range of 25°C to 225°C. The peculiar variation of on-state resistance with temperature for SiC power MOSFETs has also been demonstrated through measurements and accounted for in the developed model. In order to improve the user experience with the model, a new datasheet driven parameter extraction strategy has been presented which requires only data available in device datasheets, to enable quick parameter extraction for off-the-shelf devices. Excellent agreement is shown between measurement and simulation using the presented model over the entire temperature range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new process in 4H-SiC is developed that features n-type buried and inversion channel lateral MOSFETs that are fabricated with several different channel lengths (2–8 \mum) and widths (8–32 \mum) and characterized over a wide temperature range (25^\circC–225^\circC). It is shown that the on-resistance of enhancement-mode SiC MOSFETs reduces with temperature despite a reduction in inversion mobility because of the interaction of interface states with temperature. To enable integrated circuit development using the developed MOSFETs, their electrical characteristics are modeled over geometry and temperature using the industry standard PSP MOSFET model. A new mathematical formulation to describe the presence of the interface states is also developed and implemented in the PSP model, and excellent agreement is shown between measurement and simulation using the modified PSP model. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A practical parameter extraction procedure for a power silicon carbide (SiC) junction field-effect transistor (JFET) is presented. The carrier mobility and carrier concentration are very important parameters, strongly affecting the device current capability and dynamic characteristics for a given design. When modeling JFETs, the values of these parameters are usually based on assumptions and given by a vendor in a range. As a result, model accuracy is compromised. In this paper, a step-by-step parameter extraction procedure is described that includes the extraction of mobility and carrier concentration in the channel and drift regions based on knowledge of device geometrical parameters. For the first time, carrier mobilities in the channel and drift regions of a power JFET are extracted individually. It is found that channel and drift region mobilities can be very different for a given device since they are strongly dependent on the fabrication process. The separate extraction of these two mobilities can also improve model accuracy in the case of imperfect knowledge of the device geometry. The developed procedure includes the extraction of empirical parameters describing the temperature dependence of mobilities in the channel and drift regions. A simple static I– V characterization and C–V measurements are the only measurements required for the parameter extraction. In this paper, the procedure is experimentally validated for both normally off (enhancement mode) and normally on (depletion mode) JFETs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel SiC junction field-effect transistor (JFET) model that uses a unified description of linear and saturated conduction modes is proposed. Advantages of the proposed model are improved robustness and convergence, inclusion of field-dependent mobility effects, and more physical description of the current saturation phenomenon. The model is validated against a normally off JFET sample over a wide temperature range. Finite-element simulations are used to demonstrate the physics-based nature of the proposed model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a physical model for a SiC Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) is presented. The novel feature of the model is that the mobility dependence on both temperature and electric field is taken into account. This is particularly important for high-current power devices where the maximum conduction current is limited by drift velocity saturation in the channel. The model equations are described in detail, emphasizing the differences introduced by the field-dependent mobility model. The model is then implemented in Pspice. Both static and dynamic simulation results are given. The results are validated with experimental results under static conditions and under resistive and inductive switching conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silicon carbide (SiC) power devices are expected to have an impact on power converter efficiency, weight, volume, and reliability. Currently, only SiC Schottky diodes are commercially available at relatively low current ratings. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. has collaborated with Cree and Semikron to build a Si insulated-gate bipolar transistor-SiC Schottky diode hybrid 55-kW inverter by replacing the Si p-n diodes in Semikron's automotive inverter with Cree's made-to-order higher current SiC Schottky diodes. This paper presents the developed models of these diodes for circuit simulators, shows inverter test results, and compares the results with those of a similar all-Si inverter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distributed energy resources (DERs) are becoming integral components of electric power distribution systems. Inmost cases, an isolated dc-dc converter forms part of the interface required to connect the DER output to the distribution system. Operation of the converter at high switching frequencies results in size reduction of passive components at the expense of increased switching losses. However, silicon carbide (SiC) power devices have the potential of operating at high switching frequencies without significant loss penalty because of their fast switching times and ability to work at high temperatures when compared to similar Si devices. SiC diodes have already displayed the ability to offer more ideal diode behavior than Si diodes. Engineering samples of SiC MOSFETs are depicting lower switching losses and conduction losses over Si MOSFETs. This display is making SiC devices attractive for dc-dc converters used to connect DERs to the distribution system. This paper particularly deals with the design of a 300.W 100-kHz dc-dc full-bridge converter using zero-voltage zero-current switching for comparison of SiC MOSFETs and diodes against Si MOSFETs and diodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A compact circuit simulator model is used to describe the performance of a 2-kV, 5-A 4-H silicon carbide (SiC) power DiMOSFET and to perform a detailed comparison with the performance of a widely used 400-V, 5-A Si power MOSFET. The model's channel current expressions are unique in that they include the channel regions at the corners of the square or hexagonal cells that turn on at lower gate voltages and the enhanced linear region transconductance due to diffusion in the nonuniformly doped channel. It is shown that the model accurately describes the static and dynamic performance of both the Si and SiC devices and that the diffusion-enhanced channel conductance is essential to describe the SiC DiMOSFET on-state characteristics. The detailed device comparisons reveal that both the on-state performance and switching performance at 25 °C are similar between the 400-V Si and 2-kV SiC MOSFETs, with the exception that the SiC device requires twice the gate drive voltage. The main difference between the devices is that the SiC has a five times higher voltage rating without an increase in the specific on-resistance. At higher temperatures (above 100 °C), the Si device has a severe reduction in conduction capability, whereas the SiC on-resistance is only minimally affected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive overview of the advancements, challenges, and prospects of silicon carbide (SiC) complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology is presented. As the demand for high-performance and energy-efficient electronic devices continues to grow, SiC has emerged as a promising material due to its unique properties. The paper aims to provide a thorough understanding of the state-of-the-art developments in SiC CMOS technology. The paper delves into the key features of SiC and its compatibility with CMOS processing techniques. It highlights the challenges associated with SiC CMOS technology, such as substrate quality, interface states, and process integration. Examples of CMOS circuitry that have been successfully designed, fabricated, and tested are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Silicon carbide Schottky, merged PiN Schottky (MPS), and PiN diode technologies are modeled for on-state and reverse recovery conditions. The on-state operation of the PiN diode is modeled through four unique regimes of operation, including current densities resulting in emitter recombination, which results in a stored charge plateau during reverse recovery of SiC PiN diodes. An expression for the moving boundary redistribution capacitance is developed to accurately describe the reverse recovery process in PiN diodes. Furthermore, the extraction of stored charge and junction capacitance from transient reverse recovery measurements is also demonstrated for all diode technologies. The on-state operation of Schottky and merged PiN Schottky diodes is described and a method to model the surge current in MPS diodes is discussed. The performance of the model is demonstrated for a commercially available 600V, 4A Schottky diode and a 10kV, 7.5A PiN diode. Measurements demonstrating the extraction of model parameters and model validation results are included. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]