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This literature review examines the available research on skill sets. It provides background for a larger research project "Workforce skills development and engagement in training through skill sets," the report of which will be released early next year. This paper outlines the origin of skill sets and explains the difference between skill sets developed by national vocational education and training (VET) industry bodies for training packages and those developed by registered training organisations (RTOs) for particular clients. The researchers consider the rationale for skill sets and explain their role in the national training system. The review identifies a number of perspectives on skill sets and their contribution to the VET system: (1) Some research suggests that skill sets are a valuable VET solution because of their flexibility and capacity to be responsive to changing labour market needs; (2) Skill sets may also provide a quick and more cost-effective option for learners and may appeal to those who might be daunted by the prospect of having to undertake a full qualification; and (3) Conversely, some suggest that skill sets may confine individuals to narrow job roles and reduce their labour mobility. (Contains 4 tables and 1 footnote.) [Funding for this paper was provided through the Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education.]

This paper traces the evolution of Australia's apprenticeship and traineeship system since permanent European settlement in 1788. The system was imported from Great Britain; it has evolved and diverged in some areas but retains many of the features of the British model. Most major changes have occurred in the last 25 years. The apprenticeship model--a combination of paid employment, on-the-job and institutional training--has always had particular appeal for meeting intergenerational skills transfer: it provides employers with a source of low-cost labour, the apprentice with paid employment, and an opportunity for government to subsidise employment for those needing help to establish themselves in the labour market. Indeed, the community, employees, unions, employers and government have come to regard apprenticeships as the system for training in the trades and have tolerated few alterations to the system, beyond those resulting from shifts in the occupational and industry mix in the Australian economy and changes in secondary schooling arrangements. The first important reform to apprenticeships occurred in 1985 with the introduction of traineeships, which extended the model to a much wider range of occupations, generally at lower qualification levels. The second was in the mid-1990s when the Australian Government began paying incentives on a large scale to employers to help offset the costs of apprenticeships and traineeships and to encourage more commencements. This had a spectacular impact on traineeship numbers but much less effect on trades apprenticeships. Other significant changes were introduced in 1998; these allowed school students, existing workers and part-time workers to undertake apprenticeships and traineeships. In short, since 1985 the system has moved from one dominated by young males undertaking apprenticeships in the trades to one that provides apprenticeships and traineeships to people of all ages and both sexes, and in a much wider range of occupations. Key messages from this paper include: (1) The apprentice and trainee system needs to address some major issues. Much of the training is at low qualification levels with little or no economic return. And it can be argued that it is neglecting the general education needs of young people; (2) The system needs greater capacity to adapt and respond quickly to changing labour market demands. Australia might look to the experience of countries that use an institutional training model for trade training, which may be much easier to ramp up quickly; and (3) By any standards the cost of Australia's current system places a hefty burden on the public purse, estimated at $2.9 billion in 2008-09. Recorded occupation of a sample of skilled convicts transported to Australia, 1788-1868 is appended. (Contains 4 tables, 2 figures and 1 footnote.)

This paper investigates the personal and career development needs of TAFE (Technical And Further Education) Queensland's lead vocational teachers through the conceptual framework of Spirituality at Work (SAW), which is a framework for looking at workplace relations. This research was conducted through four focus group meetings held in November 2009, each lasting approximately 90 minutes. A Queensland TAFE-wide notice attracted the lead vocational teachers who volunteered to participate in the focus group discussions. The focus groups reviewed the way in which the lead vocational teacher role is currently being deployed within various TAFE Queensland institutes. The research is limited by the small number of participants. In all, while 80 people responded to the invitation to participate, only 24 were able to take part. This was due mainly to time constraints, work pressures and other commitments. The sample may not be representative of the true demographic of lead vocational teachers in TAFE Queensland. The research is also limited in that the sole method of data-gathering was through the use of focus groups. The paper argues that the Spirituality at Work framework already exists in the teaching profession as a set of humanist values, which, while acknowledged as fluid, changeable and multiple, informs the basis of much teaching work. In particular, the role of teacher leadership in TAFE Queensland resembles a form of servant leadership (Greenleaf 1977), with a strongly affective component. This model of ethics-based behaviour is challenged by the business-based model of education and the proliferation of performance measures. It is argued that this conflict of interest creates an incongruence that is a discouraging factor in staff retention and a source of dissatisfaction among lead vocational teachers. It is revealed that lead vocational teachers view their profession as a "calling" and see serving their students as a priority. With greater emphasis being placed on financial decisions within VET workplaces and the introduction of increased reporting requirements, these teachers feel that they are operating in environments with low levels of trust. Overall, lead vocational teachers consider that their teaching practices were undervalued. Focus group questions are appended.

Adult language, literacy and numeracy are essential ingredients for greater workforce participation, productivity and social inclusion. Both national and international research demonstrate the relationship between increasing levels of language, literacy and numeracy proficiency and positive outcomes for individuals, as well as for communities and the economy. Yet, even with this knowledge, there is still much that is unknown or requires broader debate. For example, what is the extent of adult language, literacy and numeracy provision in Australia? Whose responsibility is it to provide language, literacy and numeracy training in the workplace? Is there a need for targeted funding? What are the longer-term outcomes of literacy and numeracy programs? What programs work best for different types of learners? How can individuals quantify the civic and social benefits of improved literacy and numeracy? Following on from the May 2010 announcement of a $120 million investment by the Australian Government in adult literacy and numeracy activities, the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) hosted a forum on behalf of the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations on 13 September 2010 to explore these questions and to determine what needs to be done to find the answers. This paper presents a summary of those discussions and recommendations for future action. Background papers prepared for the forum are also provided in chapters 1-6. Forum participants emphasised that, while literacy should be everyone's business, for those concerned with public policy the focus should be on: (1) targeting those most in need; (2) finding sustainable funding models; and (3) measuring success. To do this will require further effort to better understand what is currently being done to address literacy and numeracy problems across the country and how to make adult literacy and numeracy a more prominent issue in the community and, in response, to devise sound strategies to implement and measure the impact of new activities. Individual chapters contain footnotes and references. (Contains 1 table and 8 figures.)

Social capital refers to the attributes and qualities of family, social and community networks that facilitate cooperation between individuals and communities. The quality of these networks and the extent to which individuals are engaged with them are believed to have an impact on the educational and social development of children and young people. Some evidence suggests that the influence of community networks can even help to offset some of the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage. Its intangible nature makes measuring social capital difficult. Measuring the social capital of young people is even more difficult because people tend to focus on the social capital of their parents and pay less attention to that of young people. This briefing paper discusses how young people's social capital can be examined using the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY). The paper is divided into four sections. In the first, the author looks at two social capital frameworks to clarify the various themes and complexities associated with social capital. In the second section he draws on these frameworks to assess the suitability of using data from LSAY to investigate social capital and its relationship to youth transitions. The next section summarises other social capital-related research that has used LSAY data. Finally, he draws some conclusions and makes some recommendations for future directions for LSAY in this area. Appended are: (1) Social Capital Questions, 2004-05; and (2) Social Capital and Social Capital-Related Questions. (Contains 2 figures, 3 tables and 1 footnote.)

Curriculum plays an important role in ensuring continuity and progression from early childhood education and care (ECEC) to primary education. The alignment of curricula and standards across these settings shapes children's early experiences with education systems, with implications for children's relationships and engagement in both ECEC and primary school, as well as longer-term learning and well-being outcomes. Governments can achieve curricular continuity in various ways, ranging from high-level alignment of goals across multiple curriculum documents to full integration of the curriculum into a single document that covers both ECEC and primary school. The broader contexts of education systems, such as organisation and governance, the training of staff and teachers who work in these settings, matter for curricular continuity -- and an integrated curriculum alone does not guarantee a continuous experience for children. International data and in-depth case studies from seven jurisdictions (Japan, Luxembourg, New Jersey [United States], New Zealand, Norway, Scotland [United Kingdom] and Victoria [Australia]) provide insights to these different approaches to curricular alignment.

The opportunity to study abroad is broadly hailed as a route for young people to develop a wide range of knowledge and skills, including intercultural understanding, interpersonal skills, and language learning, among many others. Universities around the world are investing significant resources in developing a variety of study abroad programmes, ranging from short or long term in duration, and from guided to independent study. These may have a number of aims, including to promote individual student learning and development and to enhance student mobility and employability, particularly in the context of a rapid and changeable global employment market. The terms 'global citizen', 'global graduate', 'global skills' and 'global mindset' have all taken on increased significance within this context. Limited research has been conducted, however, to explore students' own perspectives of these terms. This small scale study therefore set out to explore the perspectives of students on UCL's BASc programme and especially to better understand where and how the learning they gained during study abroad resonates with UCL's global citizenship and student mobility strategies. [Funding was provided by the UCL Global Engagement Office (GEO).]

Set against the backdrop of increasing economic interdependence in East Asia, the idea of regional integration is now being discussed as a long-term political process in the region. As in the field of the international economy, de facto integration and interdependence exist with respect to the internationalization of the higher education system in East Asia. Based on the results of a comprehensive Japan International Cooperation Agency Research Institute (JICA-RI) survey of 300 leading higher education institutions active in cross-border higher education, located in ten Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member Southeast Asian countries and three Northeast Asian countries (China, Japan, and Korea), this paper examines universities perceptions of the degree of cross-border activities, the significance of their expected outcomes, and their regional preferences for partners. The objective is to envision a direction for a future regional higher education framework in East Asia and to consider the policy implications of the internationalization of higher education in East Asia in the context of regionalization. The findings related to the degree of cross-border activities suggest a current perception that there is more prominent in conventional than in innovative activities, but that innovation will rise considerably in the future. With respect to the significance of expected outcomes,academic and political expected outcome are perceived to be more significant than economic expected outcome, which are nevertheless expected to be more significant in the future. Finally, in terms of their preferred regions of partners, universities in East Asia overall place a high priority on building partnerships within their own region. Yet, among Northeast Asian universities, North America is perceived as the most active partner. (Contains 3 figures, 21 tables, and 13 footnotes.) [This paper was prepared as part of a Japan International Cooperation Agency Research Institute (JICA-RI) research project titled, "Cross-border Higher Education for Regional Integration and the Labor Market in East Asia."]

The Group of Eight (Go8) welcomes the Government's commitment to developing a comprehensive research workforce strategy. Australia's research capacity and the continuing translation of research into policy, products and services is directly linked to the future productivity of the economy, social wellbeing, environmental outcomes and the nation's long-term prosperity. The "Meeting Australia's research workforce needs" consultation paper provides a useful starting point for discussions on Australia's research workforce needs but the Go8 believes that some issues will need to receive more attention in the final strategy to ensure it is comprehensive and well targeted. In particular, the paper gives insufficient attention to: (1) the quality of both the research workforce and of the research training experience--increasing the size of the research work force will not be sufficient in itself to keep Australia competitive; (2) interdependencies between the research workforce and other parts of the innovation system, including schools and research users; (3) the roles and importance of research-trained people in the broader workforce including in industry and government; (4) the need for a whole of government approach and the removal of inconsistencies between the proposed strategy and other policies and programs (for example in relation to visas) that could impede its implementation; and (5) the dependence of the strategy on increased and better targeted funding and a concentration of capability (talent and infrastructure). A number of important actions have been identified which if adopted would be positive steps in helping to build Australia's research capacity and would help Go8 universities in managing their research training programs. (Contains 2 figures, 1 table, and 10 footnotes.)

This paper focuses on issues which affect the capability of technical and further education (TAFE) providers to meet their clients' and stakeholders' needs and draws extensively on the reports of the consortium research program which examined ways to help build vocational education and training (VET) provider and workforce capability. The paper puts this research, most of which was completed in 2006 and 2007, into a contemporary framework. It suggests that TAFE providers need to be free of unnecessary central constraints to help them meet their strategic business needs. This includes more direct control of human resources matters and industrial relations. (Contains 8 footnotes.)

The proportion of apprentices and trainees completing their contract of training has received considerable attention in recent years. To support public discussion, the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) has been publishing tabulations of both completion and attrition rates. Up until recently, the approach taken was to identify a commencing cohort and follow it over time. Currently, NCVER publishes completion and attrition rates which are calculated from tabulations of completions and cancellations/withdrawals within particular quarters. This technical paper details a methodological approach which constructs cross-sectional estimates of completion and attrition rates for the latest commencing cohorts. These reflect what completion and attrition rates would be if the patterns observed in a particular quarter remain unchanged for the life of the commencing cohort in that quarter. Throughout the paper, the authors use a simple and contrived example to illustrate the model, along with the formal mathematical notation. Finally, they apply the model to cohorts commencing in the December quarters of 2007 to 2009. (Contains 5 tables, 3 figures and 2 footnotes.) [For the accompanying report, "Experimental Completion and Attrition Rates for Latest Commencing Apprentices and Trainees", see ED510878.]

The Australian Vocational Education and Training Management Information Statistical Standard (AVETMISS) for vocational education and training (VET) providers (referred to as "the Standard") is currently being reviewed by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER). The Standard is the framework that underpins the National VET Provider Collection. It provides consistency in data definitions, which ensures accurate data for use in national data collections, where information is compiled from many different sources. This discussion paper is the first step in the review. It provides a framework for feedback and identifies key issues for consideration. There are many issues associated with the specification of a Standard, such as what information is to be collected, from whom and how often. Decisions about implementation of the AVETMIS Standard are made by a range of different bodies and, while the focus of this paper is primarily on the information to be collected, comments on the timing and coverage are also welcome. Two appendices are included. (Contains 1 figure.)

Five years after implementation, the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment (TAA40104, and hereafter also referred to as the Certificate IV) remains a pivotal qualification in the national vocational education and training (VET) system. Under the Australian Quality Training Framework (AQTF) it is the qualification required by both workplace trainers/assessors and trainers/assessors working in classroom situations in registered training organisations (RTOs). Graduates with this qualification are in a position to have a significant influence on the quality of VET delivery. Consequently, opinions abound regarding the content and delivery of the qualification. There is a small but growing body of research, reports and conference papers that focus on the implementation of the qualification (Alexander 2007; Vocational Education and Training Accreditation Board 2008), its fitness as the benchmark for trainers and assessors in the national VET system (Innovation Business Skills Australia 2006; McRae 2008; Smith 2007; Robertson 2008, 2009) and more recently the experiences of those who have undertaken the qualification (Down, De Luca & Galloway 2009; Clayton 2009). This paper aims to contribute to this body of research by exploring the goals of a sample of Certificate IV candidates and their expectations of the course, and comparing their initial intentions with their actual outcomes. As the author works in the adult and community education (ACE) sector in New South Wales, the sample was drawn from among the 25 NSW ACE providers with the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment on their scope of registration. The research findings will be useful for registered training organisations who are seeking a procedure for examining and comparing intent and outcomes. This paper provides a brief overview of current research and reports on the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment and other literature relating to the measurement of learner intent and outcomes. The paper then discusses the findings that emerged from the data collected for this research. Appendices include: (1) Online survey questions; (2) Phone interview questions; and (3) Profiles of phone interviewees. (Contains 2 tables, 9 figures, and 1 footnote.)

This document provides a summary of feedback from the discussion paper for the Review of the Australian Vocational Education and Training Management Information Statistical Standard (AVETMISS) for vocational education and training (VET) providers (hereafter, the Standard). The discussion paper provided opportunities to gather feedback on a range of issues. Based on this feedback, some issues will not be pursued; however, in most cases further investigation is required before final recommendations can be made. This report gives an overview of the process to date and areas where the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) will undertake further work on the Standard. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.) [For the related report, "Review of the AVETMIS Standard for VET Providers: Discussion Paper", see ED510700.]

Numeracy and literacy skills have become increasingly important in modern labour markets. The large gender differences that several studies have identified have therefore sparked considerable attention among researchers and policy makers. Little is known about the moment in which such gaps emerge, how they evolve and if their evolution differs across countries. We use data from large-scale international assessments to follow representative samples of birth-cohorts over time, and analyse how gender gaps in numeracy and literacy evolve from age 10 to age 27. Our results suggest that, across the countries examined, males' advantage in numeracy is smallest at age 10 and largest at age 27. The growth in magnitude of the gender gap is particularly pronounced between the age of 15 and 27. Such evolution stands in sharp contrast with the evolution of the gender gap in literacy, which is small at age 10, large and in favour of females at age 15, and negligible by age 27.

This study uses the PIAAC data to examine the relationships between education system characteristics (e.g. early tracking and vocational education orientation) and distributions of adult numeracy skills. It also investigates the effects of postponing the tracking age and easing university access for students on a vocational track on the average skills and different percentiles of the skills distribution. Correlational analysis suggests that education systems with more students enrolled in vocational tracks have on average higher levels of numeracy skills and more compressed skills distributions between the 50th and 90th percentiles. Further analysis suggests that postponing the tracking age among 14 European countries does not have a significant effect on the average skills of the population. However, it increases skills for individuals at the 10th, 20th, and 30th percentiles of the skill distribution. Expanding university access is associated with an increase in numeracy skills, particularly for individuals at the bottom three deciles of the distribution.

The difficulties experienced by vocational education and training (VET) teachers in delivering the generic employability skills embedded in industry training packages are considered in this paper. It suggests that the interpretation of generic skills should not be left to trainers and that a national strategy that is clear concise, comprehensive and implementable must be developed. This paper is the result of a 2008 NCVER New Researcher Award. (Three appendixes are included: (1) Principles of Assessment; (2) Trades Trainers Interview Questions; and (3) Certificate IV Trainers Interview Questions. Contains 3 footnotes and 1 table.)

This paper aims to contribute to the discussion on the quality and accessibility of underpinning knowledge in competency-based training. It uses the Vocational Graduate Certificate and the Vocational Graduate Diploma in Education Design in a Queensland TAFE [technical and further education] institute to examine how the "traditional" knowledge and theory associated with higher-level qualifications can be accommodated within the framework of competency-based training and assessment. The paper raises some interesting, and provocative, questions about the status and value of these qualifications by comparison with their university counterparts. (Contains 2 footnotes, 2 figures, and 2 tables.)

The purpose of this paper looks at the fundamental issue of whether VET does improve the employment prospects of the groups in question. It exploits data from the Student Outcome Survey to construct samples that proxy three welfare groups and models the post-training employment outcomes. Appendices include: (1) Characteristics of the proxy groups; and (2) Regression results. (Contains 34 tables and 3 footnotes.) [Funding for this paper was provided through the Australian Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.]

Economic downturns have a particularly strong impact upon new entrants to the labour market. These can include recently arrived migrants and refugees, women returning to the labour force after a period of child rearing, and youth. This paper reflects on the impact of the recent financial crisis on particular groups in Australian society and comments on whether the VET sector is well placed to meet the challenges of the recovery. An overview accompanies this paper. (Contains 7 tables, 1 figure, and 10 footnotes.)

Apprenticeships have a very long history in Australia, building on the traditions of the medieval guilds. The essence of the apprenticeship is the contract of training--a legal contract between an individual, an employer and a training provider. The defining characteristic is the combination of employment and training. The purpose of this paper is to describe what we know about apprenticeships and traineeships, with a view to assessing the likely impact of the current economic downturn on them. A table presenting the apprentice and trainee commencements is appended. (Contains 4 tables, 13 figures, and 7 footnotes.) [Funding for this paper was provided through the Australian Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.]

This paper is a review of literature on employer engagement with vocational education and training (VET). The main conclusion is that the major form of engagement is through the competency-based training system, which is manifested through training packages. Another way employers are encouraged to engage with VET is through competition amongst training providers. This provides employers with greater responsiveness and choice. A glossary is appended. (Contains 1 table and 11 footnotes.) [Funding for this paper was made through a grant from the University of Warwick, United Kingdom.]

National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) is undertaking a consultation process to determine the next set of National Research Priorities which will guide research activities in the post-compulsory education and training arena, particularly in relation to vocational education and training. This discussion paper, and the deliberations it aims to prompt, identifies a number of key themes related to priorities for future research. A section that discusses NCVER's current research and statistics is appended. (Contains 3 boxes and 5 tables.) [Funding for this paper was provided through the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.]

The Certificate IV in Training and Assessment (TAA40104) has become the standard teaching qualification in the vocational education and training (VET) sector. Therefore the extent to which it provides competency in training and assessment, arguably the key element of being an effective teacher, is a fundamental issue. The author investigates the extent to which practitioners believe that this certificate provides an effective foundation for the delivery and assessment of training in the VET environment. Through interviews and surveys with teachers, trainers and registered training organisation managers, this project is designed to explore individual practitioner experiences and expectations upon completion of the TAA40104 qualification, after approximately a six-month period of application in the field and then, approximately 12 months after completion, a final reflection. This background paper provides a history of the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment and reviews the limited research on this qualification. The paper also outlines some of the key issues surrounding TAA40104, such as uneven quality, inconsistencies in delivery and the perceived inability to meet the skills and knowledge needs of trainers in workplaces or teachers in institutional settings. These issues provide the impetus for a review of TAA40104 being undertaken by the skills council, Innovation & Business Skills Australia (IBSA). A key message emerging from this background paper is that the position of TAA40104 as the key qualification for VET practitioners is under pressure. This is highlighted by the availability of other relevant qualifications now available to practitioners and by industry concerns about assessment approaches and assessment decision-making. (Contains 1 table.) [Funding for this document was provided through the Australian Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.]

This paper is based on a series of workshops about innovation in teaching and learning in vocational education and training (VET) which the authors conducted in March 2009. This paper addresses some of the underlying questions that practitioners have about innovation. The paper is structured in four sections: (1) a comparison of the trends in innovation identified in the two research papers: Australia in one; the United Kingdom and Europe in the other; (2) the workshop task that practitioners undertook: to design and take an innovation to market; (3) the questions and hopes of workshop participants: hidden dimensions of "innovation" and of being "innovative"; and (4) thoughts on expanding the pool of innovative VET practitioners. (Contains 7 footnotes and 1 table.)

The adoption of problem-based learning as a teaching method in the advertising and public relations programs offered by the Business TAFE (Technical and Further Education) School at RMIT University is explored in this paper. The effect of problem-based learning on student engagement, student learning and contextualised problem-solving was investigated and it was found that students perceive problem-based learning to be beneficial. Several success factors for this approach are also identified. The research for this paper was undertaken by a novice researcher in the Community of Practice scholarship program, a program funded through the National Centre for Vocational Education Research's (NCVER) Building Researcher Capacity initiative. Three appendices are included: (1) Research methods; (2) the first questionnaire used for Student Engagement Survey 2008; and (3) the second questionnaire used for Student Engagement Survey 2008. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

The perceptions of students, school and technical and further education (TAFE) staff involved in V Tracks, an early intervention program for Aboriginal school students are explored in this paper. The study identifies outcomes, challenges and recommendations for future program design. Overall, V Tracks was found to improve student engagement in school and provide greater insights into the available education, training and employment pathways for students. National Centre for Vocational Education Research's (NCVER's) Building Researcher Capacity program funded this paper, which is based on research undertaken by a novice researcher in the Community of Practice scholarship program. Appendix includes a section titled Tracks and Deadly Days: TAFE-schools initiatives to increase the retention and engagement of young Aboriginal learners in education, employment and/or training. (Contains 9 figures and 1 footnote.)

This paper reviews evidence on the interplay between professional standards for teachers, the content of teacher education and educational sciences, and provides three case studies to illustrate these interactions from Estonia, Australia and Singapore. In particular, it investigates what aligning teacher education programmes to standards really mean; and what conception of educational sciences is reflected in the standards and the curriculum. Analyses suggest that alignment, as an explicit, direct and consistent correspondence, is difficult to achieve, in part due to different conceptualisations of professional knowledge. However, this paper argues that the main value of standards as policy tools lies in their capacity to create mutual dialogue between different artefacts (standards' requirements, curriculum, course descriptions, accreditation standards, etc.), as well as among stakeholders. Regularly renegotiating the standards as a result of such dialogue and reflections should be a crucial part of the policy process.

Resilience refers to the capacity of individuals to prosper despite encountering adverse circumstances. This paper defines academic resilience as the ability of 15-year-old students from disadvantaged backgrounds to perform at a certain level in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in reading, mathematics and science that enables them to play an active role in their communities and prepares them to make the most of lifelong-learning opportunities. Using data from the most recent PISA cycles, this paper explores changes in the share of resilient students over time (2006-2015); highlights the importance of school environments and resources in mitigating the risk of low achievement for disadvantaged students; and identifies school-level factors that are associated with the likelihood of academic resilience among socio-economically disadvantaged students. Analyses reveal that several countries were able to increase the share of resilient students over time, reflecting improvements in the average performance of students, or a weaker relationship between socio-economic status and performance. In the vast majority of education systems examined, the likelihood of academic resilience among disadvantaged students is lower in schools where students report a negative classroom climate. The paper concludes by exploring school policies and practices that are associated with a positive classroom climate. [This work was supported by a contribution to the PISA programme of work from Vodafone Germany Foundation.]