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Dynamic combinatorial chemistry (DCC) creates libraries of molecules that are constantly interchanging in a dynamic combinatorial library. When a library member self‐assembles, it can displace the equilibria, leading to emergent phenomena like its selection or even its replication. However, such dynamic combinatorial libraries typically operate in or close to equilibrium. This work introduces a new dynamic combinatorial chemistry fueled by a catalytic reaction cycle that forms transient, out‐of‐equilibrium peptide‐based macrocycles. The products in this library exist out of equilibrium at the expense of fuel and are thus regulated by kinetics and thermodynamics. By creating a chemically fueled dynamic combinatorial library with the vast structural space of amino acids, we explored the liquid‐liquid phase separation behavior of the library members. The study advances DCCs by showing that peptide structures can be engineered to control the dynamic library′s behavior. The work paves the way for creating novel, tunable material systems that exhibit emergent behavior reminiscent of biological systems. These findings have implications for the development of new materials and for understanding life′s chemistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lavender oil (LEO) is one of the most well-known essential oils worldwide which, besides its extensive application in aromatherapy, serves as raw material for various fields, including the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. Accordingly, several global requirements were established to warrant its quality. Microencapsulation represents an emerging technology widely applied for the preservation of essential oils, simultaneously providing new ways of application. In the current study, lavender oil was obtained from the flowering tops of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. on a semi-industrial-scale steam distillation system. According to the GC-MS investigation, lavender oil obtained in the third year of cultivation met the European Pharmacopoeia standards for linalyl acetate and linalool contents ≈38% and ≈26%, respectively. Microcapsules (MCs) containing the so-obtained essential oil were successfully produced by complex coacervation technology between gum arabic (GA) and three different grades of type-A gelatin (GE). Optical microscopic investigations revealed a significant difference in particle size depending on the gelatin grade used. The variation observed for coacervates was well reflected on the scanning electron micrographs of the freeze-dried form. The highest encapsulation efficiency values were obtained by UV-VIS spectrophotometry for microcapsules produced using gelatin with the medium gel strength. FT-IR spectra confirmed the structural modifications attributed to microencapsulation. According to the GC-MS analysis of the freeze-dried form, the characteristic components of lavender oil were present in the composition of the encapsulated essential oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essential oil of Salvia officinalis L. (sage) exhibits versatile biological properties. The high sensitivity of sage essential oil (SEO) to environmental conditions and limited processability represent important hurdles in its use, which, however, can be overcome by microencapsulation. The objective of the current study was to encapsulate sage essential oil into core-shell type microcapsules by complex coacervation technology and to transform it into solid form by freeze-drying. Arabic gum (GA) and three different type A gelatin (G) grades were used to investigate the effect of the gel strength on microcapsule characteristics. The formation of essential oil containing microcapsules during complex coacervation was assessed by optical microscopy while SEM imaging was used to determine the morphology of the freeze-dried forms. Characterization of microcapsules was completed with FT-IR spectroscopy. Encapsulation efficiency was determined by UV-VIS spectrophotometry and the composition of essential oil by GC-MS technique. Results revealed that by the application of selected microencapsulation technology and freeze-drying method high encapsulation efficiency values could be achieved, the gel strength of gelatin has a decisive role in microcapsule particle size and the composition of essential oil is well preserved following the technological process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L., AM) is a widely used medicinal plant, with its essential oil highly valued in the cosmetic industry. In view of the numerous biological effects, however, microencapsulation, due to its ability to protect sensitive constituents, transform liquids into solid-state material, and provide modification of release kinetics, might open up new possibilities for the biomedical utilization of yarrow essential oil (AMO). In the current work, yarrow plantation was established by its propagation from spontaneous flora. Following the steam distillation of aerial parts, the chemical composition of the essential oil was determined by GC-MS analysis and compared with two commercial samples. This study concludes that Achillea millefolium L. from this region, given the environmental conditions, produces high-azulene-content essential oil. Furthermore, microencapsulation of AMO was successfully performed by complex coacervation into gelatin (GE) and gum arabic (GA) based core–shell microcapsules (MCs). According to the optical microscopic investigation, the particle sizes of the formed polynucleated microcapsules ranged from 14 to 132 µm, with an average of 47 µm. The assessment of morphology by SEM analysis of the freeze-dried form revealed a sponge-like character with embedded circular structures. The microencapsulation was confirmed by FT-IR spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), while an encapsulation efficiency of 87.6% was determined by UV spectroscopy. GC-MS analysis revealed that microencapsulation preserves the key components of the essential oil. It was concluded that AMO can be effectively processed by complex coacervation followed by freeze-drying into solid-state material for new applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, microcapsules were developed by the complex coacervation of sodium caseinate and pectin as a carrier for saffron extract. Parameters such as Zeta potential, dynamic light scattering, and microscopic techniques were investigated for their influence on the formation of these complexes. Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis confirmed the reaction mechanism between the protein and tannic acid or saffron extract. The study revealed that core/shell and protein/polysaccharide (Pr/Ps) ratios play a role in the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of saffron extract, with EE and LC ranging from 48.36 to 89.38% and 1.14 to 5.55%, respectively. Thermal gravimetric analysis revealed that the degradation temperature of saffron increased significantly with microencapsulation. The use of tannic acid for hardening the microcapsules led to an increase in size from 13 μm to 27 μm. Rheological findings indicated that shear-thinning behavior in the coacervates, with cross-linking, has a minor effect on the interconnected elastic gel structures. However, cross-linking improved the microcapsules' thermal and structural properties. The increase in polymer chain length due to cross-linking and the presence of the guest molecule (saffron extract) resulted in higher rheological moduli, reflecting enhanced entanglements and correlating well with the thermal, structural, and microstructural properties of the coacervates. Kinetic release studies showed a slower release in the gastric phase compared to the intestinal phase, with the Ritger–Peppas model effectively describing saffron extract release, highlighting a dominant swelling and dissolution release mechanism. Therefore, the NaCas/HMP coacervate wall materials made saffron stable in the gastric stage and sustainably release. It in the intestinal stage, promoting excellent absorption of saffron in simulated digestion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand the phase behaviors of polyelectrolyte solutions, we provide two analytical methods to formulate a molecular equation of state for a system of fully charged polyanions (PAs) and polycations (PCs) in a monomeric neutral component, based on integral equation theories. The mixture is treated in a primitive and restricted manner. The first method utilizes Blum's approach to charged hard spheres, incorporating the chain connectivity contribution by charged spheres via Stell's cavity function method. The second method employs Wertheim's multi-density Ornstein–Zernike treatment of charged hard spheres with Baxter's adhesive potential. The pressures derived from these methods are compared to available molecular dynamics simulations data for a solution of PAs and monomeric counterions as a limiting case. Two-phase equilibrium for the system is calculated using both methods to evaluate the relative strength of phase segregation that leads to complex coacervation. Additionally, the scaling exponents for a selected solution near its critical point are examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Linker histones play an essential role in chromatin packaging by facilitating compaction of the 11-nm fiber of nucleosomal "beads on a string." The result is a heterogeneous condensed state with local properties that range from dynamic, irregular, and liquid-like to stable and regular structures (the 30-nm fiber), which in turn impact chromatin-dependent activities at a fundamental level. The properties of the condensed state depend on the type of linker histone, particularly on the highly disordered C-terminal tail, which is the most variable region of the protein, both between species, and within the various subtypes and cell-type specific variants of a given organism. We have developed an in vitro model system comprising linker histone tail and linker DNA, which although very minimal, displays surprisingly complex behavior, and is sufficient to model the known states of linker histone-condensed chromatin: disordered "fuzzy" complexes ("open" chromatin), dense liquid-like assemblies (dynamic condensates), and higher-order structures (organized 30-nm fibers). A crucial advantage of such a simple model is that it allows the study of the various condensed states by NMR, circular dichroism, and scattering methods. Moreover, it allows capture of the thermodynamics underpinning the transitions between states through calorimetry. We have leveraged this to rationalize the distinct condensing properties of linker histone subtypes and variants across species that are encoded by the amino acid content of their C-terminal tails. Three properties emerge as key to defining the condensed state: charge density, lysine/arginine ratio, and proline-free regions, and we evaluate each separately using a strategic mutagenesis approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research was to explore the viability of pea protein as a substitute for gelatin in the complex coacervation process, with a specific focus on understanding the impact of incorporating an emulsifier into this process. The study involved the preparation of samples with varying polymer mixing ratios (1:1, 1:2, and 2:1) and emulsifier content. As core substances, black pepper and juniper essential oils were utilized, dissolved beforehand in grape seed oil or soybean oil, to minimize the loss of volatile compounds. In total, 24 distinct samples were created, subjected to freeze‐drying to produce powder, and then assessed for their physicochemical properties. Results revealed the significant impact of emulsifier addition on microcapsule parameters. Powders lacking emulsifiers exhibited higher water solubility (57.10%–81.41%) compared to those with emulsifiers (24.64%–40.13%). Moreover, the emulsifier significantly decreased thermal stability (e.g., without emulsifier, Ton = 137.21°C; with emulsifier, Ton = 41.55°C) and adversely impacted encapsulation efficiency (highest efficiency achieved: 67%; with emulsifier: 21%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In this work, microcapsules were developed by the complex coacervation of sodium caseinate and pectin as a carrier for saffron extract. Parameters such as Zeta potential, dynamic light scattering, and microscopic techniques were investigated for their influence on the formation of these complexes. Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis confirmed the reaction mechanism between the protein and tannic acid or saffron extract. The study revealed that core/shell and protein/polysaccharide (Pr/Ps) ratios play a role in the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of saffron extract, with EE and LC ranging from 48.36 to 89.38% and 1.14 to 5.55%, respectively. Thermal gravimetric analysis revealed that the degradation temperature of saffron increased significantly with microencapsulation. The use of tannic acid for hardening the microcapsules led to an increase in size from 13 μm to 27 μm. Rheological findings indicated that shear-thinning behavior in the coacervates, with cross-linking, has a minor effect on the interconnected elastic gel structures. However, cross-linking improved the microcapsules' thermal and structural properties. The increase in polymer chain length due to cross-linking and the presence of the guest molecule (saffron extract) resulted in higher rheological moduli, reflecting enhanced entanglements and correlating well with the thermal, structural, and microstructural properties of the coacervates. Kinetic release studies showed a slower release in the gastric phase compared to the intestinal phase, with the Ritger–Peppas model effectively describing saffron extract release, highlighting a dominant swelling and dissolution release mechanism. Therefore, the NaCas/HMP coacervate wall materials made saffron stable in the gastric stage and sustainably release. It in the intestinal stage, promoting excellent absorption of saffron in simulated digestion. Graphical Abstract

Mastitis-causing bacteria can establish persistent infections in the mammary glands of commercially important dairy animals despite the presence of strong specific humoral and cellular immune mechanisms. We investigated the effect of vitamin D3 in the diet at a set level, but in two different forms (i.e., unencapsulated and encapsulated by complex coacervation with sulfur-saturated bovine lactoferrin-alginate using microbial transglutaminase-catalyzed crosslinking) on the immune response in late-lactating dairy goats. Dairy goats (n = 18) were randomly assigned to three experimental groups (n = 6). Dairy goats were orally administered 0.35 mg of vitamin D3/day in the unencapsulated form and 0.35 mg of vitamin D3/day in the encapsulated powder form. Another group received the basal diet. The experimental period lasted 6 weeks. The blood serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 [25-(OH)-D3], lactoferrin, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and interferon-gamma (INF-γ) were measured. There were major differences in these parameters between dietary groups. However, the delivery of vitamin D3 in the encapsulated powder form to dairy goats resulted in a marked increase in 25-(OH)-D3 concentration in serum, while the serum level of lactoferrin also increased. Alternatively, the serum levels of IgA and the immunomodulatory cytokine INF-γ were elevated following supplementation with the encapsulated vitamin D3. The observed effects suggest that the deliverable form of dietary vitamin D3 results in differences in the immune response in late-lactating dairy goats.

At present, the use of isocyanate adhesives mostly requires the assistance of solvents, which can cause adverse environmental pollution and health effects. The aqueous isocyanate avoids the shortcomings of the solvent, but shortens the working life of the isocyanate. Isocyanate microcapsules can avoid these shortcomings, and can also solidify isocyanate to improve the efficiency of isocyanate use. In this study, microencapsulation technology was used to protect the highly reactive -NCO group, improve the stability of isocyanate, and prolong the working life of isocyanate in water-based wood adhesives. That is, isocyanate microcapsules with gum Arabic/gelatin as shell and isocyanate as core were prepared in oil-in-water emulsion by complex coacervation. In addition, the preparation process was optimized by changing the parameters. Then, the prepared isocyanate microcapsules were characterized and analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, Scanning electron microscope, Particle size analyzer, etc. Finally, plywood was prepared by using the prepared isocyanate microcapsules in the wood adhesive. The results showed that, the particle size of isocyanate microcapsules was controllable, and the content of active groups and core in the prepared isocyanate microcapsules can reach a high level. The isocyanate microcapsules extend the working life of isocyanates from about 30 mins to 5 hours, and significantly improve the stability of isocyanates. The bonding strength of the prepared plywood meets the requirements of (Class I plywood) with only 20% -NCO addition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cholesteric liquid crystal microcapsules (CLCMs) are used to improve the stability of liquid crystals while ensuring their stimulus response performance and versatility, with representative applications such as sensing, anticounterfeiting, and smart fabrics. However, the reflectivity and angular anisotropy decrease because of the anchoring effect of the polymer shell matrix, and the influence of particle size on this has not been thoroughly studied. In this study, the effect of synthesis technology on microcapsule particle size was investigated using a complex coalescence method, and the effect of particle size on the reflectivity and angular anisotropy of CLCMs was investigated in detail. A particle size of approximately 66 µm with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA, 1:1) exhibited a relative reflectivity of 16.6% and a bandwidth of 20 nm, as well as a narrow particle size distribution of 22 µm. The thermosetting of microcapsules coated with PVA was adjusted and systematically investigated by controlling the mass ratio. The optimized mass ratio of microcapsules (66 µm) to PVA was 2:1, increasing the relative reflectivity from 16.6% (1:1) to 32.0% (2:1) because of both the higher CLCM content and the matching between the birefringence of the gelatin–arabic shell system and PVA. Furthermore, color based on Bragg reflections was observed in the CLCM-coated ortho-axis and blue-shifted off-axis, and this change was correlated with the CLCM particle size. Such materials are promising for anticounterfeiting and color-based applications with bright colors and angular anisotropy in reflection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mastitis-causing bacteria can establish persistent infections in the mammary glands of commercially important dairy animals despite the presence of strong specific humoral and cellular immune mechanisms. We investigated the effect of vitamin D3 in the diet at a set level, but in two different forms (i.e., unencapsulated and encapsulated by complex coacervation with sulfur-saturated bovine lactoferrin-alginate using microbial transglutaminase-catalyzed crosslinking) on the immune response in late-lactating dairy goats. Dairy goats (n = 18) were randomly assigned to three experimental groups (n = 6). Dairy goats were orally administered 0.35 mg of vitamin D3/day in the unencapsulated form and 0.35 mg of vitamin D3/day in the encapsulated powder form. Another group received the basal diet. The experimental period lasted 6 weeks. The blood serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 [25-(OH)-D3], lactoferrin, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and interferon-gamma (INF-γ) were measured. There were major differences in these parameters between dietary groups. However, the delivery of vitamin D3 in the encapsulated powder form to dairy goats resulted in a marked increase in 25-(OH)-D3 concentration in serum, while the serum level of lactoferrin also increased. Alternatively, the serum levels of IgA and the immunomodulatory cytokine INF-γ were elevated following supplementation with the encapsulated vitamin D3. The observed effects suggest that the deliverable form of dietary vitamin D3 results in differences in the immune response in late-lactating dairy goats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to understand the effect of electromagnetic field (EMF) and ionic strength on the electrostatic interactions between β-lactoglobulin(β-lg) and gum Arabic (GA). Therefore, different EMF intensities (5.2, 6.4, 7.6, 8.8, and 10 mT) and NaCl concentrations (30, 35, and 40 mM) were used. The turbidimetric results showed that an increase in the EMF intensity shifted the curves to more acidic regions in comparison to the control sample. In other words, more interactions occurred in the EMF-treated samples while addition of salt distinctly decreased the turbidity and inhibited the interaction. The particle size observations were evaluated by static light scattering machine (SLS). The results showed that the particle size significantly increased (up to 0.753 ± 0.01 μm) by raising the EMF intensities to 10 mT. The addition of NaCl at a concentration of 30 mM showed a slight increase in the particle size diameter. By increasing the salt concentration to 35 and 40 mM, a decrease in the particle diameter was observed which could be due to the reduction in protein/polysaccharide reaction as a result of the prohibiting effect of salts. SEM micrographs revealed almost the same structures in the EMF-treated and untreated samples. However, more aggregation was observed in EMF-treated samples. The presence of salt also established small aggregations. This study showed that EMF can have interesting effects on protein/polysaccharide interactions and formation of particles used as delivery systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we explored the feasibility of using oat soluble protein and gum Arabic as wall materials for microencapsulation via complex coacervation of juniper dissolved in wheat germ oil EO. The process was optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM), varying mixing ratios (20-80%) and pH levels (2-6), followed by freeze-drying of the coacervates. Physicochemical properties of the resulting powders, including solubility, hygroscopicity, moisture content, color, particle size distribution, and bulk and tapped density, were assessed. Encapsulation efficiency (EE) was determined through surface and total oil content calculations, supported by FT-IR spectroscopy. Characterization involved e-nose sensor analysis and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The study findings revealed encapsulation efficiencies (EE) ranging from 23.38% to 26.58%, accompanied by low bulk and tapped densities (0.11-0.17 g/cm3 and 0.20-0.28 g/cm3, respectively), as well as elevated Carr Index values (36.92-46.34) and Hausner ratios (1.59-1.86). Moisture content varied between 0.07 % and 0.93 % across the samples. Additionally, the research demonstrated that employing oat protein and gum Arabic as wall materials enables the production of microcapsules with thermal stability exceeding 100 °C, facilitating their potential application in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microcapsules loaded with essential oils, namely Litsea cubeba, Cymbopogon nardus and Cymbopogon citratus, in gum arabic and chitosan were prepared to explore their mosquito repelling effects and their antimicrobial function. The encapsulation ratio, along with the materials characterization and release behavior of the essential oils from the microcapsules were studied, together with temperature and time dependences. Mosquito repellency was assessed against Ae. aegypti using the "arm-in-cage" method, and the antibacterial activity was tested against E. coli and S. aureus. The results demonstrated that microcapsules loaded with essential oils were successfully prepared for all three essential oils. Also, the results showed that the highest encapsulation ratio was found for microcapsules loaded with Cymbopogon citratus oil. The microcapsules loaded with all essential oils were effective in prolonging protection time against Ae. aegypti, especially in the case of the Litsea cubeba oil, while the Cymbopogon nardus and Cymbopogon citratus oils yielded the highest antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The microencapsulation of α-tocopherol based on the complex coacervation of low-molecular-weight chitosan (LMWC) and sodium lauryl ether sulphate (SLES) without harmful crosslinkers can provide biocompatible carriers that protect it from photodegradation and air oxidation. In this study, the influence of the microcapsule wall composition on carrier performance, compatibility with a high-water-content vehicle for topical application, and release of α-tocopherol were investigated. Although the absence of aldehyde crosslinkers decreased the encapsulation efficiency of α-tocopherol (~70%), the variation in the LMWC/SLES mass ratio (2:1 or 1:1) had no significant effect on the moisture content and microcapsule size. The prepared microcapsule-loaded carbomer hydrogels were soft semisolids with pseudoplastic flow behavior. The integrity of microcapsules embedded in the hydrogel was confirmed by light microscopy. The microcapsules reduced the pH, apparent viscosity, and hysteresis area of the hydrogels, while increasing their spreading ability on a flat inert surface and dispersion rate in artificial sweat. The in vitro release of α-tocopherol from crosslinker-free microcapsule-loaded hydrogels was diffusion-controlled. The release profile was influenced by the LMWC/SLES mass ratio, apparent viscosity, type of synthetic membrane, and acceptor medium composition. Better data quality for the model-independent analysis was achieved when a cellulose nitrate membrane and ethyl alcohol 60% w/w as acceptor medium were used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to develop microcapsules containing juniper or black pepper essential oils, using a combination of faba bean protein and chia seed polysaccharides (in ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 2:1). By synergizing these two polymers, our goal was to enhance the efficiency of essential oil microencapsulation, opening up various applications in the food industry. Additionally, we aimed to investigate the influence of different polymer mixing ratios on the properties of the resulting microcapsules and the course of the complex coacervation process. To dissolve the essential oils and limit their evaporation, soybean and rapeseed oils were used. The powders resulting from the freeze-drying of coacervates underwent testing to assess microencapsulation efficiency (65.64–87.85%), density, flowability, water content, solubility, and hygroscopicity. Additionally, FT-IR and DSC analyses were conducted. FT-IR analysis confirmed the interactions between the components of the microcapsules, and these interactions were reflected in their high thermal resistance, especially at a protein-to-polysaccharide ratio of 2:1 (177.2 °C). The water content in the obtained powders was low (3.72–7.65%), but it contributed to their hygroscopicity (40.40–76.98%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract d-limonene is a volatile compound widely used in food flavorings, but it is chemically unstable in the presence of air, light, moisture, and high temperatures. Coacervation is a well-established technique which involves the formation of biopolymer nanocomplexes between negatively charged polysaccharides and positively charged proteins to protect bioactive components. The study shows the effect of pH, protein/polysaccharide ratio and total biopolymer concentration on complex coacervation of defatted wheat germ protein (DWGP) and apple pectin (high methoxyl pectin (HMP)) in the food industry as a carrier and delivery system for d-limonene. DWGP was used for the first time to form coacervate with apple pectin. Turbidity, ζ-potential and particle size of the complex coacervate and their individual biopolymers were examined for preliminary assays of complex coacervation. The optimum condition for DWGP/pectin complex coacervation was found to be at a ratio of 4:1 with a total biopolymer concentration of 1% and a pH of 4.0. The rheological properties of DWGP, pectin, and their coacervate were measured at various pH levels and ratios. The resulting coacervates, used to microencapsulate d-limonene, underwent spray-dried and were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements. These findings have the potential to contribute to the development of DWGP/pectin complex coacervates as effective delivery systems for volatile aromas or bioactive compounds. Graphical Abstract

Chitosan and Prunus armeniaca gum exudate complex coacervation was developed to encapsulate the flaxseed oil (FSO), which is high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Flaxseed oil microcapsules were produced by complex coacervation method using chitosan (CH; low molecular weight); 1 % w/v), apricot tree's (Prunus armeniaca L.) gum (PAGE; 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2 % w/v), tween 40 and potassium hydroxide, as a cross-linking agent, the various ratios of CH/PAGE (1:1, 2:1 and 3:1) and different ratios of wall: core ratios (20:1, 30:1 and 40:1) was considered. Also, the characteristics of microcapsules were investigated using SEM, DLS, DSC, FTIR, SGF, as well as encapsulation efficiency (EE %), antioxidant and chemical properties, release behavior, morphological of microcapsules and unencapsulated oil. The optimum microsphere termed M4 was selected which was composed of CH: PAGE ratio of 3:1 with PAGE concentration of 0.05 % and the FSO to biopolymer ratio of 1:20, based on its higher EE %, antioxidant activity, oxidative stability, and lower release rate. Morphological properties by SEM indicated that using excessive concentrations of PAGE (0.1 and 0.5 %) led to non-uniform coacervates which led to reduction of EE % and increase in surface oil. DSC and FTIR analysis indicated that FSO was physically entrapped within the complex polyelectrolytes structure. Complex coacervation is a promising method to preserve the highly sensitive FSO to oxidation and the produced microspheres can be used to promote functional food products.

The study investigates the complex coacervation process of sodium alginate (SA) and chitosan (CS), aiming to optimize the yield of coacervates formed from these marine polysaccharides. Structural interactions between SA and CS were analyzed across varying chitosan concentrations (0.01 mg to 20 mg/mL) using turbidimetric analysis. The optimal chitosan concentration for maximum coacervate formation was determined to be 10 mg/mL. Under these conditions, Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Bt) strain Bt-127 was successfully microencapsulated, achieving an entrapment rate of 56 %. Boric acid was selected as the cross-linking agent due to its compatibility with Bt and the SA-CS coacervates. Microscopic analysis confirmed the formation of coacervates/microcapsules and effective entrapment of Bt within them, with an entrapment efficiency of 98 %. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy verified the chemical interactions between SA and CS within the coacervates. Bioassays against Spodoptera litura larvae using the leaf dip method demonstrated the efficacy of the encapsulated Bt formulation, showing an LC50 of 0.51 g/L. These findings highlight the potential of SA-CS coacervates for effective Bt microencapsulation and application in pest control.

d-limonene is a volatile compound widely used in food flavorings, but it is chemically unstable in the presence of air, light, moisture, and high temperatures. Coacervation is a well-established technique which involves the formation of biopolymer nanocomplexes between negatively charged polysaccharides and positively charged proteins to protect bioactive components. The study shows the effect of pH, protein/polysaccharide ratio and total biopolymer concentration on complex coacervation of defatted wheat germ protein (DWGP) and apple pectin (high methoxyl pectin (HMP)) in the food industry as a carrier and delivery system for d-limonene. DWGP was used for the first time to form coacervate with apple pectin. Turbidity, ζ-potential and particle size of the complex coacervate and their individual biopolymers were examined for preliminary assays of complex coacervation. The optimum condition for DWGP/pectin complex coacervation was found to be at a ratio of 4:1 with a total biopolymer concentration of 1% and a pH of 4.0. The rheological properties of DWGP, pectin, and their coacervate were measured at various pH levels and ratios. The resulting coacervates, used to microencapsulate d-limonene, underwent spray-dried and were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements. These findings have the potential to contribute to the development of DWGP/pectin complex coacervates as effective delivery systems for volatile aromas or bioactive compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Interaction between plant‐based proteins and polysaccharides depends on several factors. This work reports the influence of pH and biopolymer ratios on the protein (pea protein isolate, PPI)‐polysaccharide (locust bean gum, LBG) coacervates. Electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bond between the biopolymers strongly influenced the formation of the coacervates. Results: The optimum coacervate conditions were observed at pH 4.5 and PPI:LBG ratio of 5:1. The coacervates showed a honeycomb porous architecture having an amorphous nature. Complex coacervates showed a significant elevation of denaturation temperature as compared to biopolymers alone. Conclusion: These results indicates that PPI‐LBG coacervates can be used as an effective biomaterial for encapsulating heat‐sensitive bioactive compounds and other multiple uses in food processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silk fibroin (SF) is a protein with many outstanding properties (superior biocompatibility, mechanical strength, etc.) and is often used in many advanced applications (epidermal sensors, tissue engineering, etc.). The properties of SF-based biomaterials may additionally be tuned by SF interactions with other (bio)polymers. Being a weak amphoteric polyelectrolyte, SF may form polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) with other polyelectrolytes of opposite charge, such as poly(acrylic acid) (PAA). PAA is a widely used, biocompatible, synthetic polyanion. Here, we investigate PEC formation between SF and PAA of two different molecular weights (MWs), low and high, using various techniques (turbidimetry, zeta potential measurements, capillary viscometry, and tensiometry). The colloidal properties of SF isolated from Bombyx mori and of PAAs (MW, overlap concentration, the influence of pH on zeta potential, adsorption at air/water interface) were determined to identify conditions for the SF-PAA electrostatic interaction. It was shown that SF-PAA PEC formation takes place at different SF:PAA ratios, at pH 3, for both high and low MW PAA. SF-PAA PEC's properties (phase separation, charge, and surface activity) are influenced by the SF:PAA mass ratio and/or the MW of PAA. The findings on the interactions contribute to the future development of SP-PAA PEC-based films and bioadhesives with tailored properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aimed to add chia and linseed oils in microencapsulated and free forms (nonmicroecapsulated) as sources of omega 3 fatty acids in fruit juice and to analyze their physical-chemical, microbiological and sensory acceptance. The lipid profiles of the chia and linseed oils showed high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (63.61 % for linseed and 81.26 for chia), especially alpha-linolenic omega-3. The morphology of the microcapsules showed a spherical structure with dispersed oil droplets, and the encapsulation efficiency was 64.20 % for linseed oil and 69.82 % for chia oil. The soluble solids content did not change with the addition of microcapsules or oils. On the other hand, pH and acidity showed changes with the addition of these components. The juice samples containing microcapsules of chia oil exhibited greater sensory acceptance than formulations containing free oil, suggesting the beneficial effect of microencapsulation in protecting and masking the taste of oils. Thus, with this work it was possible to add microcapsules of oils rich in omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to beverages to increase the nutritional value of the final product, which has good sensory acceptance.

The present work was planned to optimize extraction process of phenolics, flavonoids, monomeric anthocyanin and antioxidants from black rice bran using Ultrasound-assisted extraction and finally utilize it for encapsulation using double emulsion coacervation process. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed for optimization of extraction process. Acidified ethanol (1 M HCl) was used as extraction solvent and ultrasound power (W) and extraction time (min) were used as independent variables. Face centered composite design (FCCD) data was successfully opted and developed a 2nd order polynomial equation with R2 value of 0.94 for total phenolic content (TPC), 0.95 for total flavonoid content (TFC), 0.87 for 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 0.98 for total anthocyanin content (ANCs) respectively. Kinetic model study for extraction of anthocyanin was compared to conventional extraction process. Characterization of the extracts was performed using high pressure liquid chromatography analysis (HPLC). Cyanidin-3-glucoside is the predominated anthocyanin found as compared to peonidin-3-D-glucoside. Finally, coacervated microcapsules were developed using anthocyanin extract as core solution and gelatin and acacia gum as wall materials. Characterization of the microcapsules in terms of moisture content, hygroscopicity, solubility, encapsulation efficiency and surface morphology were evaluated. The result thus obtained shows that potential anthocyanin content from black rice bran can be utilized as food ingredients for various food application and formulation of functional food.

Lactoferrin is of interest for infant nutrition due to its roles in supporting gastrointestinal development. When supplemented orally, digestive exposure may reduce the availability and biofunctionality of the protein and its derived peptides. The aim of this study was to evaluate the proteolysis of bovine lactoferrin and β-casein coacervates following infant in vitro digestion. Coacervation of β-casein with lactoferrin showed a protective function against peptic proteolysis, increasing the levels of intact β-casein and lactoferrin during gastric digestion, while the uncomplexed β-casein was readily proteolyzed. The coacervate was shown to protect the C-terminal of β-casein against gastric proteolysis. This resulted in altered peptide profiles in the gastric and intestinal phases, requiring additional research to ascertain potential implications for biological activity. This study demonstrates the impact of protein–protein interactions on proteolysis during digestion, which may delay proteolysis and possibly protect the bioactive properties of the proteins.

Lavender oil (LEO) is one of the most well-known essential oils worldwide which, besides its extensive application in aromatherapy, serves as raw material for various fields, including the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. Accordingly, several global requirements were established to warrant its quality. Microencapsulation represents an emerging technology widely applied for the preservation of essential oils, simultaneously providing new ways of application. In the current study, lavender oil was obtained from the flowering tops of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. on a semi-industrial-scale steam distillation system. According to the GC-MS investigation, lavender oil obtained in the third year of cultivation met the European Pharmacopoeia standards for linalyl acetate and linalool contents ≈38% and ≈26%, respectively. Microcapsules (MCs) containing the so-obtained essential oil were successfully produced by complex coacervation technology between gum arabic (GA) and three different grades of type-A gelatin (GE). Optical microscopic investigations revealed a significant difference in particle size depending on the gelatin grade used. The variation observed for coacervates was well reflected on the scanning electron micrographs of the freeze-dried form. The highest encapsulation efficiency values were obtained by UV-VIS spectrophotometry for microcapsules produced using gelatin with the medium gel strength. FT-IR spectra confirmed the structural modifications attributed to microencapsulation. According to the GC-MS analysis of the freeze-dried form, the characteristic components of lavender oil were present in the composition of the encapsulated essential oil.

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L., AM) is a widely used medicinal plant, with its essential oil highly valued in the cosmetic industry. In view of the numerous biological effects, however, microencapsulation, due to its ability to protect sensitive constituents, transform liquids into solid-state material, and provide modification of release kinetics, might open up new possibilities for the biomedical utilization of yarrow essential oil (AMO). In the current work, yarrow plantation was established by its propagation from spontaneous flora. Following the steam distillation of aerial parts, the chemical composition of the essential oil was determined by GC-MS analysis and compared with two commercial samples. This study concludes that Achillea millefolium L. from this region, given the environmental conditions, produces high-azulene-content essential oil. Furthermore, microencapsulation of AMO was successfully performed by complex coacervation into gelatin (GE) and gum arabic (GA) based core–shell microcapsules (MCs). According to the optical microscopic investigation, the particle sizes of the formed polynucleated microcapsules ranged from 14 to 132 µm, with an average of 47 µm. The assessment of morphology by SEM analysis of the freeze-dried form revealed a sponge-like character with embedded circular structures. The microencapsulation was confirmed by FT-IR spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), while an encapsulation efficiency of 87.6% was determined by UV spectroscopy. GC-MS analysis revealed that microencapsulation preserves the key components of the essential oil. It was concluded that AMO can be effectively processed by complex coacervation followed by freeze-drying into solid-state material for new applications.

To understand the phase behaviors of polyelectrolyte solutions, we provide two analytical methods to formulate a molecular equation of state for a system of fully charged polyanions (PAs) and polycations (PCs) in a monomeric neutral component, based on integral equation theories. The mixture is treated in a primitive and restricted manner. The first method utilizes Blum’s approach to charged hard spheres, incorporating the chain connectivity contribution by charged spheres via Stell’s cavity function method. The second method employs Wertheim’s multi-density Ornstein–Zernike treatment of charged hard spheres with Baxter’s adhesive potential. The pressures derived from these methods are compared to available molecular dynamics simulations data for a solution of PAs and monomeric counterions as a limiting case. Two-phase equilibrium for the system is calculated using both methods to evaluate the relative strength of phase segregation that leads to complex coacervation. Additionally, the scaling exponents for a selected solution near its critical point are examined.

The intestinal microflora has living microorganisms that promote the well-being and health of the intestine and indirectly of different systems of the body. When probiotic microorganisms are supplied in the correct dose and in an adequate manner, they contribute to the reduction of acquiring certain diseases; Probiotics have numerous properties that affect the microflora of the body, resulting in benefits mainly for intestinal health and the immune system, which can be supplied by nutraceutical products or functional foods. However, there are limitations in their use because they are sensitive under adverse environmental conditions, they degrade in food matrices under acidic conditions of the gastrointestinal tract, where they must exert their mechanism of action to generate beneficial effects on the health of the host. Therefore, it is important to implement strategies that provide protection to probiotics against unfavorable conditions, to significantly maintain viability during processing and in the digestive system. There are various encapsulation techniques, including ionic gelation and complex coacervation, both methods with great benefits for the protection of probiotic microorganisms and broad advantages for application in different food matrices; These techniques are made with non-toxic, natural materials approved for human consumption. This review aims to present important aspects of probiotic microorganisms in the food industry and the need for protective barriers, focusing mainly on encapsulation techniques by ionic gelation and complex coacervation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Complex coacervation method of Microencapsulation bioactive compounds to be used in the food industry. Astaxanthin is a carotenoid that has a great impact on human health. The aim of this study was to produce encapsulated astaxanthin with gum arabic and gelatin by complex coacervation method and to study the morphology of microcapsules by light microscopy, their efficiency, loading capacity.and stability in thermal treatment by calculating the retention percentage at 50, 70 and 90 degrees. Celsius at 3, 9 and 15 minutes. All tests were performed in three replications. Astaxanthin oil solution with different concentrations (0.75 and 1.5%) was finely coated with gelatin and gum arabic in equal proportions. The results showed that the microcapsules were spherical, opaque and no clear. Statistically, there was a significant difference between the two treatments of 0.75 and 1.5% of astaxanthin in terms of time and different temperatures based on the least significant difference (LSD) test at the level of 5%. Increasing the concentration of astaxanthin from 0.75 to 1.5%, increased the dry matter content of microcapsule suspension and significantly reduced (P <0.05) the loading capacity from 30.31 to 19.76%, as well as the microencapsulation efficiency from 54.64 It increased significantly to 71.13% (P <0.05). The retention rate of microcapsules decreased with increasing the temperature of heat treatment from 50 to 90 degrees Celsius during 3 to 15 minutes and also at a certain temperature. The best treatment for microencapsulation was 1.5% astaxanthin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Encapsulation by coacervation has received interest in the last few years because of its low cost. Ultrasound (US) processing has proven to be an adequate technology for protein denaturation, increasing coacervation yield. There is a lack of information regarding its effects on encapsulation yield. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of US treatments on calcium caseinate (CaCN)–kappa carrageenan (KC) coacervates and the improvements in encapsulation efficiency (EE) of ascorbic acid (AA). US‐treatments (50% and 100% amplitude, 2 and 4 min) were applied to a 2% CaCN solution. Caseinate solution was mixed with a soy oil–AA (25%) W/O emulsion to form a second emulsion W/O/W. Finally, the second emulsion was employed for complex coacervation with KC (2% solution). The results showed a 10% increase in EE in the US‐treatments, with better stability and release profiles compared to the control. Sonication proved to be effective for coacervation improvement. Practical Applications: Ultrasound pretreatment of calcium caseinate for coacervation along with kappa carrageenan showed an increase in the coacervation yield. This result was mainly attributed to the structural protein modification obtained after ultrasound (US) treatment. These coacervates can be employed to encapsulate bioactive compounds, such as ascorbic acid (AA), which is one of the most labile vitamins. In this sense, the US application leads to increases in encapsulation efficiency (around 10%) with a better stability and release profile than the capsules without treatment. These results create an opportunity to encapsulate AA and use the capsules in systems with a wide range of pH, increasing the chances of having functional products on the market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of high intensity ultrasound (HIUS) treatment on the molecular conformation of whey protein isolated (WPI) as a previous step for complex coacervation with iota carrageenan (IC) and its effect on the surface functional properties of complex coacervates (CC). Both biopolymers were hydrated (1% w/w) separately. A WPI suspension was treated with an ultrasonic bath (40 kHz, 600 W, 30 and 60 min, 100% amplitude). A non-sonicated protein was used as a control. Coacervation was achieved by mixing WPI and IC dispersions (10 min). FTIR-ATR analysis (400–4000 cm−1) detected changes after sonication on WPI secondary structure (1600–1700 cm−1), electrostatic interaction between WPI and IC by electronegative IC charged groups like sulfate (1200–1260 cm−1), anhydrous oxygen of the 3.6 anhydro-D-galactose (940–1066 cm−1) and the electropositive regions of WPI. Rheology results showed pseudoplastic behavior of both IC and WPI-IC with a significant change in viscosity level. Further, HIUS treatment had a positive effect on the emulsifying properties of the WPI-IC coacervates, increasing the time foaming (30 min) and emulsion stability (1 month) percentage. HIUS and complex coacervation proved to be an efficient tool to improve the surface functional properties of WPI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Essential oils are mixtures of chemical compounds that are very susceptible to the effects of the external environment. Hence, more attention has been drawn to their preservation methods. The aim of the study was to test the possibility of using the classical model of complex coacervation for the microencapsulation of essential oils. Black pepper (Piper nigrum) and juniper (Juniperus communis) essential oils were dissolved in grape seed (GSO) and soybean (SBO) oil to minimize their loss during the process, and formed the core material. Various mixing ratios of polymers (gelatin (G), gum Arabic (GA)) were tested: 1:1; 1:2, and 2:1. The oil content was 10%, and the essential oil content was 1%. The prepared coacervates were lyophilized and then screened to obtain a powder. The following analyses were determined: encapsulation efficiency (EE), Carr index (CI), Hausner ratio (HR), solubility, hygroscopicity, moisture content, and particle size. The highest encapsulation efficiency achieved was within the range of 64.09–59.89%. The mixing ratio G/GA = 2:1 allowed us to obtain powders that were characterized by the lowest solubility (6.55–11.20%). The smallest particle sizes, which did not exceed 6 μm, characterized the powders obtained by mixing G/GA = 1:1. All powder samples were characterized by high cohesiveness and thus poor or very poor flow (CI = 30.58–50.27, HR = 1.45–2.01). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] In food manufacturing and particular biomedical products selected proteins are often required. Obtaining the desired proteins in a pure form from natural resources is therefore important, but often very challenging. Herein, we design a sequential coacervation process that allows to efficiently isolate and purify proteins with different isoelectric points (pIs) from a mixed solution, namely Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA, pI = 4.9) and Peroxidase from Horseradish (HRP, pI = 7.2). The key to separation is introducing a suitable polyelectrolyte that causes selective complex coacervation at appropriate pH and ionic strength. Specifically, polyethyleneimine (PEI), when added into the mixture at pH 6.0, produces a coacervation which exclusively contains BSA, leading to a supernatant solution containing 100 % HRP with a purity of 91 %. After separating the dilute and dense phases, BSA is recovered by adding poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) to the concentrated phase, which displaces BSA from the complex because it interacts more strongly with PEI. The supernatant phase after this step contains approximately 75 % of the initial amount of BSA with a purity of 99 %. Our results confirm that coacervation under well-defined conditions can be selective, enabling separation of proteins with adequate purity. Therefore, the established approach demonstrates a facile and sustainable strategy with potential for protein separation at industrial scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to optimize black garlic encapsulation parameters (core/coating ratio, extract concentration, and coacervate/maltodextrin [MD] ratio) using central composite design of the response surface methodology based on encapsulation efficiency (EE) (%). The optimum parameters were determined as 4.0 for the coating material/core ratio, 50% for the extract concentration, and 6.0 for the MD/coacervate ratio depending on the EE (%). The antioxidant activity values were determined as 101 and 134 µmol Trolox/100 g dry weight (DW) for the 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl and 2,2′‐azino‐bis(3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid) methods, respectively, whereas the total phenolic content was 49 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g DW for the encapsulated black garlic samples. S‐Allyl‐l‐cysteine (SAC), γ‐l‐glutamyl‐SAC (GSAC), γ‐l‐glutamyl‐(S)‐trans‐1‐propenyl‐l‐cysteine, and allicin were the organosulfur (OS) compounds determined in the samples. The SAC concentration of the encapsulated black garlic samples was determined as 22.36 mg/g, whereas the GSAC content was found at a lower concentration (0.33 mg/g) compared to SAC. The allicin content was quantified to be 0.31 mg/g. The encapsulated samples were also characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR) spectroscopy. The FT‐IR analysis revealed specific functional groups, including hydroxyl, carbonyl, and glycosidic linkage. The interaction between lentil protein isolate and pectin was strong enough to encourage capsule formation as visualized in the SEM images. This study shows the potential of black garlic coacervates as a functional ingredient for the food industry due to their stability, solubility, and preservation of OS and antioxidant compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACTPropolis is a sticky resin from bees and contains reasonable amounts of bioactive compounds that benefit the human body. Despite the benefits that propolis has to offer, propolis also has a bitter taste and pungent aroma. These characteristics of propolis could be controlled by a microencapsulation process with a complex coacervation method using gelatine and sodium alginate as coating material. The amount of propolis added was also varied in F1 (5 ml), F2 (10 ml), and F3 (15 ml). This study aimed to determine the effect of different concentrations of propolis on the physicochemical characteristic of propolis microcapsule. The results showed that increasing the addition of propolis concentration could also increase yield, total phenolic content, hygroscopicity, and solubility. Meanwhile, the increase in propolis concentration showed a decrease in encapsulation efficiency, moisture content, water activity, and dissolution time. Propolis microcapsules have a round morphology and several hollows on the surface. The best treatment was seen in F1, which obtained microcapsules of propolis with an encapsulation efficiency of 91.86%, and F3 which obtained microcapsules with high spraydried yield and solubility, fast dissolution time, and low value of moisture content, water activity, and hygroscopicity.

The microencapsulation of α-tocopherol based on the complex coacervation of low-molecular-weight chitosan (LMWC) and sodium lauryl ether sulphate (SLES) without harmful crosslinkers can provide biocompatible carriers that protect it from photodegradation and air oxidation. In this study, the influence of the microcapsule wall composition on carrier performance, compatibility with a high-water-content vehicle for topical application, and release of α-tocopherol were investigated. Although the absence of aldehyde crosslinkers decreased the encapsulation efficiency of α-tocopherol (~70%), the variation in the LMWC/SLES mass ratio (2:1 or 1:1) had no significant effect on the moisture content and microcapsule size. The prepared microcapsule-loaded carbomer hydrogels were soft semisolids with pseudoplastic flow behavior. The integrity of microcapsules embedded in the hydrogel was confirmed by light microscopy. The microcapsules reduced the pH, apparent viscosity, and hysteresis area of the hydrogels, while increasing their spreading ability on a flat inert surface and dispersion rate in artificial sweat. The in vitro release of α-tocopherol from crosslinker-free microcapsule-loaded hydrogels was diffusion-controlled. The release profile was influenced by the LMWC/SLES mass ratio, apparent viscosity, type of synthetic membrane, and acceptor medium composition. Better data quality for the model-independent analysis was achieved when a cellulose nitrate membrane and ethyl alcohol 60% w/w as acceptor medium were used.

Considering mitigating oxidative degradation and inhibiting microbial proliferation in meat products, incorporating antioxidant and antimicrobial materials is critical to enhance shelf life, maintain quality, and ensure food safety. So, this study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of encapsulated gallic acid on the quality of hamburgers during 30 days of storage. Gallic acid was microencapsulated in tragacanth gum/gelatin complex coacervate, and its encapsulation efficiency was optimized by the response surface method. The optimized encapsulation conditions were 1:4 polymer ratio (tragacanth to gelatin ratio); total polymer content, 0.9 %; pH, 3.5; and gallic acid content, 0.88 %, resulting in a 98 % encapsulation efficiency. The microcapsules were characterized using various techniques, including scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry. 400 ppm encapsulated gallic acid was added to the hamburger formulation, and various microbial properties, chemical analysis (peroxide value (POV) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA)), and sensory properties of the hamburgers were evaluated during storage. Results showed that gallic acid in the hamburgers decreased lipid oxidation from 0.126 to 0.103 mg MAD/kg in the TBA test and 12.73 to 11.03 meq/kg in the POV test during one month of storage. Also, phenolic compounds could prevent the growth and proliferation of spoilage microorganisms by damaging the microorganism cell walls and changing the metabolic processes. So, the amounts of total count and yeast and mold in the treated sample were lower than in the control sample. Significantly, adding encapsulated gallic acid did not negatively affect the flavor or overall evaluation of the samples. Overall, these findings suggested that encapsulated gallic acid is a suitable candidate to maintain chemical, microbial, and sensory characteristics of hamburgers over time.

β-carotene (βC) is a liposoluble natural pigment important for human health due to their antioxidant and provitamin A activities but presents high chemistry instabilities which increases their oxidation in the presence of light, oxygen, high temperatures and low pHs. This research aimed to microencapsulate βC by complex coacervation of ovalbumin (OVA) and sodium alginate (NaAlg). The microencapsulation technique was employed at pH=4.0 and 8:1 OVA/NaAlg (w/w) ratio, after confirming their affinity with zeta potential, state diagram, turbidity, and isothermal trituration calorimetry analyses. The obtained microcapsules presented spherical morphology with well-defined core and high encapsulation efficiency (97.90%). The presence of OVA, NaAlg and βC in microcapsules was confirmed by the Fourier transformed infrared analyses. The in vitro simulation of the gastrointestinal digestion of the microcapsules revealed that 71.39% of microencapsulated βC was released in the intestines with 32.78% of bioaccessibility. The release kinetics of encapsulated βC demonstrated that the βC release mechanism occurs by Fickian diffusion. The addition of βC microcapsules in cookies improved by 2-fold the antioxidant activities compared to free βC microcapsules cookies. These results suggest that βC microcapsules formed by complex coacervation of OVA/NaAlg can be added efficiently in the fortification of cookies.

The aim of this study was to microencapsulate probiotic bacteria (Lactobacillus acidophilus 11073) using whey-protein-isolate (WPI)–octenyl-succinic-anhydride-starch (OSA-starch)-complex coacervates and to investigate the effects on probiotic bacterial viability during spray drying, simulated gastrointestinal digestion, thermal treatment and long-term storage. The optimum mixing ratio and pH for the preparation of WPI-OSA-starch-complex coacervates were determined to be 2:1 and 4.0, respectively. The combination of WPI and OSA starch under these conditions produced microcapsules with smoother surfaces and more compact structures than WPI-OSA starch alone, due to the electrostatic attraction between WPI and OSA starch. As a result, WPI-OSA-starch microcapsules showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher viability (95.94 ± 1.64%) after spray drying and significantly (p < 0.05) better protection during simulated gastrointestinal digestion, heating (65 °C/30 min and 75 °C/10 min) and storage (4/25 °C for 12 weeks) than WPI-OSA-starch microcapsules. These results demonstrated that WPI-OSA-starch-complex coacervates have excellent potential as a novel wall material for probiotic microencapsulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Food Research & Development is the property of Food Research & Development Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The aim of this study was to develop microcapsules containing juniper or black pepper essential oils, using a combination of faba bean protein and chia seed polysaccharides (in ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 2:1). By synergizing these two polymers, our goal was to enhance the efficiency of essential oil microencapsulation, opening up various applications in the food industry. Additionally, we aimed to investigate the influence of different polymer mixing ratios on the properties of the resulting microcapsules and the course of the complex coacervation process. To dissolve the essential oils and limit their evaporation, soybean and rapeseed oils were used. The powders resulting from the freeze-drying of coacervates underwent testing to assess microencapsulation efficiency (65.64–87.85%), density, flowability, water content, solubility, and hygroscopicity. Additionally, FT-IR and DSC analyses were conducted. FT-IR analysis confirmed the interactions between the components of the microcapsules, and these interactions were reflected in their high thermal resistance, especially at a protein-to-polysaccharide ratio of 2:1 (177.2 °C). The water content in the obtained powders was low (3.72–7.65%), but it contributed to their hygroscopicity (40.40–76.98%).

Silk fibroin (SF) is a protein with many outstanding properties (superior biocompatibility, mechanical strength, etc.) and is often used in many advanced applications (epidermal sensors, tissue engineering, etc.). The properties of SF-based biomaterials may additionally be tuned by SF interactions with other (bio)polymers. Being a weak amphoteric polyelectrolyte, SF may form polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) with other polyelectrolytes of opposite charge, such as poly(acrylic acid) (PAA). PAA is a widely used, biocompatible, synthetic polyanion. Here, we investigate PEC formation between SF and PAA of two different molecular weights (MWs), low and high, using various techniques (turbidimetry, zeta potential measurements, capillary viscometry, and tensiometry). The colloidal properties of SF isolated from Bombyx mori and of PAAs (MW, overlap concentration, the influence of pH on zeta potential, adsorption at air/water interface) were determined to identify conditions for the SF-PAA electrostatic interaction. It was shown that SF-PAA PEC formation takes place at different SF:PAA ratios, at pH 3, for both high and low MW PAA. SF-PAA PEC’s properties (phase separation, charge, and surface activity) are influenced by the SF:PAA mass ratio and/or the MW of PAA. The findings on the interactions contribute to the future development of SP-PAA PEC-based films and bioadhesives with tailored properties.

As a major class of dietary polyphenols, tannins are demonstrated to have various health-promoting properties. Although tannins have been widely utilized in food, pharmaceutical and many other industries, the applications of tannins are quite limited due to their poor stability, sensory attributes and bioavailability. Encapsulation helps improve all of these properties. Complex coacervation, one of the most effective encapsulation techniques, is known for its simplicity, low cost, scalability and reproducibility in encapsulation of functional components. In recent years, complex coacervation has been successfully used for encapsulation of tannins and tannin-rich plant extracts. In this article, the research progress in encapsulating tannins and tannin-rich plant extracts by complex coacervation to improve their physicochemical properties and biological activities is critically reviewed for the first time. Encapsulation of tannins and tannin-rich plant extracts can effectively improve their sensory characteristics, stabilities, bioavailability, anti-hypercholesterolemia, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anticancer and antimicrobial activities. In particular, the enhancement of biological activities of tannins and tannin-rich plant extracts is usually correlated to their improved physicochemical properties imparted by the encapsulation technique. Moreover, we introduce the issues that need to be further resolved in future studies on encapsulation of tannins and tannin-rich plant extracts by complex coacervation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] As people become more aware of the health benefits of foods and their nutritional benefits for preventing diseases and promoting health, the demand for functional foods rich in proteins, fiber, and bioactives like capsaicin (CAP) is constantly rising. This study hypothesized that the electrostatic complexes developed by cricket protein isolate (CPI) and alginate (AL) could be utilized to encapsulate CAP, making it more water-soluble and protecting it at acidic pHs. Quantitative analysis revealed that CAP was efficiently encapsulated into the CPI-AL complexes with a maximum encapsulation efficiency of 91%, improving its aqueous solubility 45-fold. In vitro release tests showed that CAP was retained at acidic pHs (3.0 and 5.0) in CPI-AL complexes but released steadily at neutral pH (7.4), which will protect CAP in the stomach while enabling its release in the small intestine. Moreover, the antioxidant activity of CAP-CPI-AL complexes was superior to that of their individual bare equivalents. The complexes also demonstrated enhanced emulsifying capabilities and stability at acidic pHs (2.0–5.0) as the CPI fraction in the complexes increased. Our findings thus contribute to the growing body of knowledge that validates protein-polysaccharide complexation as a promising strategy for developing edible delivery systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, it was aimed to nanoencapsulate sweetgum essential oil with gelatin and gum arabic using genipin, a natural cross-linker. In the synthesis process, firstly, sweetgum oil was coated with gelatin and gum Arabic wall materials using the complex coacervation method, and then cross-linked using different amounts of genipin (150, 250, 350 and 450 mg). Total oil, surface oil, and encapsulation efficiency of the obtained nanocapsules were analyzed. With the increase in the amount of genipin, a decrease was observed in the surface oil content of the nanocapsules, while an increase was observed in the total oil and encapsulation efficiency values. Nanocapsules with an encapsulation efficiency value of 91.78% were obtained by using 450 mg genipin, and FTIR, FESEM, TGA, and DSC analyzes were performed to examine the structural, morphological and thermal properties of these nanocapsules, respectively. The results show that sweetgum oil is successfully coated with gelatin and gum Arabic at nanoscale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Dalian Polytechnic University is the property of Journal of Dalian Polytechnic University Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)