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Abstract Glioblastoma (GBM) is a type of brain cancer categorized as a high-grade glioma. GBM is characterized by limited treatment options, low patient survival rates, and abnormal serotonin metabolism. Previous studies have investigated the tumor suppressor function of aldolase C (ALDOC), a glycolytic enzyme in GBM. However, it is unclear how ALDOC regulates production of serotonin and its associated receptors, HTRs. In this study, we analyzed ALDOC mRNA levels and methylation status using sequencing data and in silico datasets. Furthermore, we investigated pathways, phenotypes, and drug effects using cell and mouse models. Our results suggest that loss of ALDOC function in GBM promotes tumor cell invasion and migration. We observed that hypermethylation, which results in loss of ALDOC expression, is associated with serotonin hypersecretion and the inhibition of PPAR-γ signaling. Using several omics datasets, we present evidence that ALDOC regulates serotonin levels and safeguards PPAR-γ against serotonin metabolism mediated by 5-HT, which leads to a reduction in PPAR-γ expression. PPAR-γ activation inhibits serotonin release by HTR and diminishes GBM tumor growth in our cellular and animal models. Importantly, research has demonstrated that PPAR-γ agonists prolong animal survival rates and increase the efficacy of temozolomide in an orthotopic brain model of GBM. The relationship and function of the ALDOC-PPAR-γ axis could serve as a potential prognostic indicator. Furthermore, PPAR-γ agonists offer a new treatment alternative for glioblastoma multiforme (GBM).

Summary: The interaction between prostate cancer (PCa) cells and prostate stromal cells fosters an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) that promotes tumor growth and immune evasion. However, the specific signaling pathways involved remain unclear. We identified a key mechanism involving the CXCL5/CXCR2 and LIF/LIFR pathways, which create a feedforward loop that enhances neuroendocrine differentiation (NED) in PCa cells and upregulates WNT1-inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1) in both cell types. WISP1 upregulation is essential for inducing immune checkpoints and immunosuppressive cytokines via LIF/LIFR signaling and STAT3 phosphorylation. This process leads to increased neuroendocrine markers, immune checkpoints, cell proliferation, and migration. Notably, WISP1 levels in patient sera correlate with PCa progression, suggesting its potential as a biomarker. Our findings elucidate the mechanisms by which reciprocal communication between PCa cells and stromal cells contributes to the formation of an immunosuppressive TME, driving the malignant progression of PCa and highlighting potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) have a layered structure of clay silicate minerals and a tubular shape, which is suitable for the uniform loading of small substrates and drug molecules. The inner diameter of HNTs with an acidic solvent is selectively etched to increase the loading capacity of magnetic iron–platinum (FePt) nanoparticles. The FePt nanoparticles and etched HNTs (eHNT) are then composited by vacuum decompression. The resulting product is named FePt@eHNT and is used as a contrast agent for T2‐weighted magnetic resonance imaging. According to a comprehensive analysis of the material and its magnetic properties, by adding different proportions of HNTs before and after modification, the saturation magnetization can reach 23.769 emu g−1, which is higher than that of the composite materials studied in previous studies. This is because the tubular structure promotes the orderly displacement of the FePt nanoparticles under three‐dimensional space constraints and the uniform effect of the magnetic field. In addition, the magnetothermal effect of the composite material is observed and its potential as an imaging agent is investigated. In this study, the enhancement of its ferromagnetism and its potential to become a multifunctional composite material for applications in drug delivery, magnetic hyperthermia, and bioimaging is demonstrated.

Abstract Epithelial‐mesenchymal transition (EMT) is associated with tumorigenesis and drug resistance. The Rab superfamily of small G‐proteins plays a role in regulating cell cytoskeleton and vesicle transport. However, it is not yet clear how the Rab family contributes to cancer progression by participating in EMT. By analysing various in silico datasets, we identified a statistically significant increase in RAB31 expression in the oxaliplatin‐resistant group compared to that in the parental or other chemotherapy drug groups. Our findings highlight RAB31's powerful effect on colorectal cancer cell lines when compared with other family members. In a study that analysed multiple online meta‐databases, RAB31 RNA levels were continually detected in colorectal tissue arrays. Additionally, RAB31 protein levels were correlated with various clinical parameters in clinical databases and were associated with negative prognoses for patients. RAB31 expression levels in all three probes were calculated using a computer algorithm and were found to be positively correlated with EMT scores. The expression of the epithelial‐type marker CDH1 was suppressed in RAB31 overexpression models, whereas the expression of the mesenchymal‐type markers SNAI1 and SNAI2 increased. Notably, RAB31‐induced EMT and drug resistance are dependent on extracellular vesicle (EV) secretion. Interactome analysis confirmed that RAB31/AGR2 axis‐mediated exocytosis was responsible for maintaining colorectal cell resistance to oxaliplatin. Our study concluded that RAB31 alters the sensitivity of oxaliplatin, a supplementary chemotherapy approach, and is an independent prognostic factor that can be used in the treatment of colorectal cancer.

Abstract Cancer progression is influenced by junctional adhesion molecule (JAM) family members. The relationship between JAM family members and different types of cancer was examined using The Cancer Genome Atlas dataset. mRNA levels of the F11R (F11 receptor) in tumours were inversely correlated to the expression of JAM‐2 and JAM‐3. This relationship was unique to breast cancer (BCa) and was associated with poor prognosis (p = 0.024, hazard ratio = 1.44 [1.05–1.99]). A 50‐gene molecular signature (prediction analysis of microarray 50) was used to subtype BCa. F11R mRNA expression significantly increased in human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)‐enriched (p = 0.0035) and basal‐like BCa tumours (p = 0.0005). We evaluated F11R protein levels in two different compositions of BCa subtype patient tissue array cohorts to determine the relationship between BCa subtype and prognosis. Immunohistochemistry staining revealed that a high F11R protein level was associated with poor overall survival (p

Abstract Current treatment options for prostate cancer focus on targeting androgen receptor (AR) signaling. Inhibiting effects of AR may activate neuroendocrine differentiation and lineage plasticity pathways, thereby promoting the development of neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC). Understanding the regulatory mechanisms of AR has important clinical implications for this most aggressive type of prostate cancer. Here, we demonstrated the tumor-suppressive role of the AR and found that activated AR could directly bind to the regulatory sequence of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor 4 (CHRM4) and downregulate its expression. CHRM4 was highly expressed in prostate cancer cells after androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT). CHRM4 overexpression may drive neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate cancer cells and is associated with immunosuppressive cytokine responses in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of prostate cancer. Mechanistically, CHRM4-driven AKT/MYCN signaling upregulated the interferon alpha 17 (IFNA17) cytokine in the prostate cancer TME after ADT. IFNA17 mediates a feedback mechanism in the TME by activating the CHRM4/AKT/MYCN signaling-driven immune checkpoint pathway and neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate cancer cells. We explored the therapeutic efficacy of targeting CHRM4 as a potential treatment for NEPC and evaluated IFNA17 secretion in the TME as a possible predictive prognostic biomarker for NEPC.

Rab GTPase 3C (RAB3C) is a peripheral membrane protein that is involved in membrane trafficking (vesicle formation) and cell movement. Recently, researchers have noted the exocytosis of RAB proteins, and their dysregulation is correlated with drug resistance and the altered tumor microenvironment in tumorigenesis. However, the molecular mechanisms of exocytotic RABs in the carcinogenicity of colorectal cancer (CRC) remain unknown. Researchers have used various in silico datasets to evaluate the expression profiles of RAB family members. We confirmed that RAB3C plays a key role in CRC progression. Its overexpression promotes exocytosis and is related to the resistance to several chemotherapeutic drugs. We established a proteomic dataset based on RAB3C, and found that dystrophin is one of the proteins that is upregulated with the overexpression of RAB3C. According to our results, RAB3C‐induced dystrophin expression promotes vesicle formation and packaging. A connectivity map predicted that the cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) agonists reverse RAB3C‐associated drug resistance, and that these agonists have synergistic effects when combined with standard chemotherapy regimens. Moreover, we found high dystrophin expression levels in CRC patients with poor survival outcomes. A combination of the dystrophin and RAB3C expression profiles can serve as an independent prognostic factor in CRC and is associated with several clinicopathological parameters. In addition, the RAB3C–dystrophin axis is positively correlated with the phosphatidylinositol 4,5‐bisphosphate 3‐kinase catalytic subunit alpha isoform (PIK3CA) genetic alterations in CRC patients. These findings can be used to provide novel combined therapeutic options for the treatment of CRC.

Abstract Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a subtype of bile duct cancer usually diagnosed late with a low survival rate and no satisfactorily systemic treatment. Recently, regorafenib has been accepted as a second-line treatment for CCA patients. In this study, we investigated the potential signal transduction pathways mediated by regorafenib. We established a transcriptomic database for regorafenib-treated CCA cells using expression microarray chips. Our data indicate that regorafenib inhibits yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) activity in various CCA cells. In addition, we demonstrated that YAP1 regulates epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related genes, including E-cadherin and SNAI2. We further examined YAP1 activity, phosphorylation status, and expression levels of YAP1 downstream target genes in the regorafenib model. We found that regorafenib dramatically suppressed these events in CCA cells. Moreover, in vivo results revealed that regorafenib could significantly inhibit lung foci formation and tumorigenicity. Most importantly, regorafenib and amphiregulin (AREG) neutralize antibody exhibited synergistic effects against CCA cells. In a clinical setting, patients with high YAP1 and EMT expression had a worse survival rate than patients with low YAP1, and EMT expression did. In addition, we found that YAP1 upregulated the downstream target amphiregulin in CCA. Our findings suggest that AREG neutralizing antibody antibodies combined with regorafenib can reverse the CCA metastatic phenotype and EMT in vitro and in vivo. These findings provide novel therapeutic strategies to combat the metastasis of CCA.

Abstract Pulmonary metastasis occurring via the colonization of circulating cancer stem cells is a major cause of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC)-related death. Thus, understanding the mechanism of OSCC pulmonary metastasis may provide a new opportunity for OSCC treatment. FAS, a well-known apoptosis-inducing death receptor, has multiple nonapoptotic, protumorigenic functions. Previously, we found that SAS OSCC cells with FAS receptor knockout did not affect orthotopic tumor growth or cervical lymph node metastasis. However, FAS knockout cells could not colonize in distant organs to form metastases upon intravenous injection, which hinted at the cancer stemness function of the FAS receptor. Immunohistochemistry staining indicated that the FAS receptor serves as a poor prognosis marker in OSCC patients. FAS knockout inhibited in vitro cancer spheroid formation, migration and invasion, and prevented mesenchymal transition in OSCC cells and inhibited OSCC pulmonary metastasis in vivo. To determine the regulatory mechanism by which the FAS receptor exerts its oncogenic function, we utilized cDNA microarrays and phosphoprotein arrays to discover key candidate genes and signaling pathway regulators. JAG1 expression and NOTCH pathway activation were controlled by the FAS receptor through ERK phosphorylation. Both JAG1 and NOTCH1 silencing decreased in vitro cancer spheroid formation. In OSCC cells, FAS ligand or JAG1 protein treatment increased NOTCH pathway activity, which could be abolished by FAS receptor knockout. In FAS knockout cells, restoring the NOTCH1 intracellular domain stimulated cancer spheroid formation. Both JAG1 and NOTCH1 silencing decreased in vivo OSCC growth. In conclusion, we found a novel FAS-ERK-JAG1-NOTCH1 axis that may contribute to OSCC stemness and pulmonary metastasis.

Abstract Glioblastoma (GBM) is a fatal cancer. Existing therapies do not have significant efficacy for GBM patients. Previous studies have shown that the collagen family is involved in the regulation of the extracellular environment of cancer cells, and these conditions could become an important factor for effective treatment. Therefore, we screened various collagen types and observed that the type V collagen α1 chain (COL5A1) gene plays a pivotal role in GBM. We further examined whether the overexpression of COL5A1 is common in mesenchymal subtypes and is related to the survival rate of GBM patients through several in silico cohorts. In addition, our cohort also showed a consistent trend in COL5A1 protein levels. Most importantly, we validated the cell mobility, metastatic ability and actin polymerization status caused by COL5A1 with two-way models. Based on these results, we established a transcriptomics dataset based on COL5A1. Moreover, PPRC1, GK and ESM1 were predicted by ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) to be transcription factors or to participate downstream. We investigated the involvement of COL5A1 in extracellular remodeling and the regulation of actin filaments in the metastasis of GBM. Our results indicate that the COL5A1−PPRC1−ESM1 axis may represent a novel therapeutic target in GBM.

Abstract In Asia, including Taiwan, malignant tumors such as Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) one of the liver cancer is the most diagnosed subtype. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been a typical diagnostic method for accurately diagnosing HCC. When it is difficult to demonstrate non-enhanced MRI of tumors, radiologists can use contrast agents (such as Gd3+, Fe3O4, or FePt) for T1-weighted and T2-weighted imaging remain in the liver for a long time to facilitate diagnosis via MRI. However, it is sometimes difficult for T2-weighted imaging to detect small tumor lesions because the liver tissue may absorb iron ions. This makes early cancer detection a challenging goal. This challenge has prompted current research to create novel nanocomposites for enhancing the noise-to-signal ratio of MRI. To develop a method that can more efficiently diagnose and simultaneously treat HCC during MRI examination, we designed a functionalized montmorillonite (MMT) material with a porous structure to benefit related drugs, such as mitoxantrone (MIT) delivery or as a carrier for the FePt nanoparticles (FePt NPs) to introduce cancer therapy. Multifunctional FePt@MMT can simultaneously visualize HCC by enhancing MRI signals, treating various diseases, and being used as an inducer of magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH). After loading the drug MIT, FePt@MMT-MIT provides both MFH treatment and chemotherapy in one nanosystem. These results ultimately prove that functionalized FePt@MMT-MIT could be integrated as a versatile drugs delivery system by combining with MRI, chemotheraeutic drugs, and magnetic guide targeting.

Abstract Phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) is involved in glycolytic and various metabolic events. Dysfunction of PGK may induce metabolic reprogramming and the Warburg effect. In this study, we demonstrated that PGK1, but not PGK2, may play a key role in tumorigenesis and is associated with metastasis. We observed an inverse correlation between PGK1 and the survival rate in several clinical cohorts through bioinformatics statistical and immunohistochemical staining analyses. Surprisingly, we found that PGK1 was significantly increased in adenocarcinoma compared with other subtypes. Thus, we established a PGK1-based proteomics dataset by a pull-down assay. We further investigated HIV-1 Tat Specific Factor 1 (HTATSF1), a potential binding partner, through protein–protein interactions. Then, we confirmed that PGK1 indeed bound to HTATSF1 by two-way immunoprecipitation experiments. In addition, we generated several mutant clones of PGK1 through site-directed mutagenesis, including mutagenesis of the N-terminal region, the enzyme catalytic domain, and the C-terminal region. We observed that even though the phosphoglycerate kinase activity had been inhibited, the migration ability induced by PGK1 was maintained. Moreover, our immunofluorescence staining also indicated the translocation of PGK1 from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and its colocalization with HTATSF1. From the results presented in this study, we propose a novel model in which the PGK1 binds to HTATSF1 and exerts functional control of cancer metastasis. In addition, we also showed a nonenzymatic function of PGK1.

PurposeCurrent treatment options for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) are limited, especially for cases with cancer stem cell-induced chemoresistance and recurrence. The WNT signaling pathway contributes to maintenance of stemness via translocation of β-catenin into the nucleus, and represents a promising druggable target in HNSCC. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), a steroid hormone, has potential as an anticancer drug. However, the potential anticancer mechanisms of DHEA including inhibition of stemness, and its therapeutic applications in HNSCC remain unclear.MethodsFirstly, SRB assay and sphere formation assay were used to examine cellular viability and cancer stem cell-like phenotype, respectively. The expressions of stemness related factors were measured by RT-qPCR and western blotting. The luciferase reporter assay was applied to evaluate transcriptional potential of stemness related pathways. The alternations of WNT signaling pathway were measured by nuclear translocation of β-catenin, RT-qPCR and western blotting. Furthermore, to investigate the effect of drugs in vivo, both HNSCC orthotopic and subcutaneous xenograft mouse models were applied.ResultsWe found that DHEA reduced HNSCC cell viability, suppressed sphere formation, and inhibited the expression of cancer-stemness markers, such as BMI-1 and Nestin. Moreover, DHEA repressed the transcriptional activity of stemness-related pathways. In the WNT pathway, DHEA reduced the nuclear translocation of the active form of β-catenin and reduced the protein expression of the downstream targets, CCND1 and CD44. Furthermore, when combined with the chemotherapeutic drug, irinotecan (IRN), DHEA enhanced the sensitivity of HNSCC cells to IRN as revealed by reduced cell viability, sphere formation, expression of stemness markers, and activation of the WNT pathway. Additionally, this combination reduced in vivo tumor growth in both orthotopic and subcutaneous xenograft mouse models.ConclusionThese findings indicate that DHEA has anti-stemness potential in HNSCC and serves as a promising anticancer agent. The combination of DHEA and IRN may provide a potential therapeutic strategy for patients with advanced HNSCC.

Exposure to alkylating agents and radiation may cause damage and apoptosis in cancer cells. Meanwhile, this exposure involves resistance and leads to metabolic reprogramming to benefit cancer cells. At present, the detailed mechanism is still unclear. Based on the profiles of several transcriptomes, we found that the activity of phospholipase D (PLD) and the production of specific metabolites are related to these events. Comparing several particular inhibitors, we determined that phospholipase D1 (PLD1) plays a dominant role over other PLD members. Using the existing metabolomics platform, we demonstrated that lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LPE) and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) are the most critical metabolites, and are highly dependent on aldolase A (ALDOA). We further demonstrated that ALDOA could modulate total PLD enzyme activity and phosphatidic acid products. Particularly after exposure to alkylating agents and radiation, the proliferation of lung cancer cells, autophagy, and DNA repair capabilities are enhanced. The above phenotypes are closely related to the performance of the ALDOA/PLD1 axis. Moreover, we found that ALDOA inhibited PLD2 activity and enzyme function through direct protein–protein interaction (PPI) with PLD2 to enhance PLD1 and additional carcinogenic features. Most importantly, the combination of ALDOA and PLD1 can be used as an independent prognostic factor and is correlated with several clinical parameters in lung cancer. These findings indicate that, based on the PPI status between ALDOA and PLD2, a combination of radiation and/or alkylating agents with regulating ALDOA-PLD1 may be considered as a new lung cancer treatment option.

Filopodia are cellular protrusions that respond to a variety of stimuli. Filopodia are formed when actin is bound to the protein Fascin, which may play a crucial role in cellular interactions and motility during cancer metastasis. Significantly, the noncanonical features of Fascin-1 are gradually being clarified, including the related molecular network contributing to metabolic reprogramming, chemotherapy resistance, stemness ac-tivity, and tumor microenvironment events. However, the relationship between biological characteristics and pathological features to identify effective therapeutic strategies needs to be studied further. The pur-pose of this review article is to provide a broad overview of the latest molecular networks and multiomics research regarding fascins and cancer. It also highlights their direct and indirect effects on available cancer treatments. With this multidisciplinary approach, researchers and clinicians can gain the most relevant in-formation on the function of fascins in cancer progression, which may facilitate clinical applications in the future.

Molecular biology applications based on gold nanotechnology have revolutionary impacts, especially in diagnosing and treating molecular and cellular levels. The combination of plasmonic resonance, biochemistry, and optoelectronic engineering has increased the detection of molecules and the possibility of atoms. These advantages have brought medical research to the cellular level for application potential. Many research groups are working towards this. The superior analytical properties of gold nanoparticles can not only be used as an effective drug screening instrument for gene sequencing in new drug development but also as an essential tool for detecting physiological functions, such as blood glucose, antigen-antibody analysis, etc. The review introduces the principles of biomedical sensing systems, the principles of nanomaterial analysis applied to biomedicine at home and abroad, and the chemical surface modification of various gold nanoparticles.

Because of the unique physicochemical properties of magnetic iron-based nanoparticles, such as superparamagnetism, high saturation magnetization, and high effective surface area, they have been applied in biomedical fields such as diagnostic imaging, disease treatment, and biochemical separation. Iron-based nanoparticles have been used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to produce clearer and more detailed images, and they have therapeutic applications in magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH). In recent years, researchers have used clay minerals, such as ceramic materials with iron-based nanoparticles, to construct nanocomposite materials with enhanced saturation, magnetization, and thermal effects. Owing to their unique structure and large specific surface area, iron-based nanoparticles can be homogenized by adding different proportions of ceramic minerals before and after modification to enhance saturation magnetization. In this review, we assess the potential to improve the magnetic properties of iron-based nanoparticles and in the preparation of multifunctional composite materials through their combination with ceramic materials. We demonstrate the potential of ferromagnetic enhancement and multifunctional composite materials for MRI diagnosis, drug delivery, MFH therapy, and cellular imaging applications.

Cancer is a disease characterized by abnormal cell growth. According to a report published by the World Health Organization (WHO), cancer is the second leading cause of death globally, responsible for an estimated 9.6 million deaths in 2018. It should be noted that ultrasound is already widely used as a diagnostic procedure for detecting tumorigenesis. In addition, ultrasound energy can also be utilized effectively for treating cancer. By filling the interior of lipospheres with gas molecules, these particles can serve both as contrast agents for ultrasonic imaging and as delivery systems for drugs such as microbubbles and nanobubbles. Therefore, this review aims to describe the nanoparticle-assisted drug delivery system and how it can enhance image analysis and biomedicine. The formation characteristics of nanoparticles indicate that they will accumulate at the tumor site upon ultrasonic imaging, in accordance with their modification characteristics. As a result of changing the accumulation of materials, it is possible to examine the results by comparing images of other tumor cell lines. It is also possible to investigate ultrasound images for evidence of cellular effects. In combination with a precision ultrasound imaging system, drug-carrying lipospheres can precisely track tumor tissue and deliver drugs to tumor cells to enhance the ability of this nanocomposite to treat cancer.

This review outlines the methods for preparing carbon dots (CDs) from various natural resources to select the process to produce CDs with the best biological application efficacy. The oxidative activity of CDs mainly involves photo-induced cell damage and the destruction of biofilm matrices through the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby causing cell auto-apoptosis. Recent research has found that CDs derived from organic carbon sources can treat cancer cells as effectively as conventional drugs without causing damage to normal cells. CDs obtained by heating a natural carbon source inherit properties similar to the carbon source from which they are derived. Importantly, these characteristics can be exploited to perform non-invasive targeted therapy on human cancers, avoiding the harm caused to the human body by conventional treatments. CDs are attractive for large-scale clinical applications. Water, herbs, plants, and probiotics are ideal carbon-containing sources that can be used to synthesize therapeutic and diagnostic CDs that have become the focus of attention due to their excellent light stability, fluorescence, good biocompatibility, and low toxicity. They can be applied as biosensors, bioimaging, diagnosis, and treatment applications. These advantages make CDs attractive for large-scale clinical application, providing new technologies and methods for disease occurrence, diagnosis, and treatment research.

Changes in cell growth and metabolism are affected by the surrounding environmental factors to adapt to the cell’s most appropriate growth model. However, abnormal cell metabolism is correlated with the occurrence of many diseases and is accompanied by changes in galectin (Gal) performance. Gals were found to be some of the master regulators of cell–cell interactions that reconstruct the microenvironment, and disordered expression of Gals is associated with multiple human metabolic-related diseases including cancer development. Cancer cells can interact with surrounding cells through Gals to create more suitable conditions that promote cancer cell aggressiveness. In this review, we organize the current understanding of Gals in a systematic way to dissect Gals’ effect on human disease, including how Gals’ dysregulated expression affects the tumor microenvironment’s metabolism and elucidating the mechanisms involved in Gal-mediated diseases. This information may shed light on a more precise understanding of how Gals regulate cell biology and facilitate the development of more effective therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment by targeting the Gal family.

Epithelial and mesenchymal transition mechanisms continue to occur during the cell cycle and throughout human development from the embryo stage to death. In embryo development, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) can be divided into three essential steps. First, endoderm, mesoderm, and neural crest cells form, then the cells are subdivided, and finally, cardiac valve formation occurs. After the embryonic period, the human body will be subjected to ongoing mechanical stress or injury. The formation of a wound requires EMT to recruit fibroblasts to generate granulation tissues, repair the wound and re-create an intact skin barrier. However, once cells transform into a malignant tumor, the tumor cells acquire the characteristic of immortality. Local cell growth with no growth inhibition creates a solid tumor. If the tumor cannot obtain enough nutrition in situ, the tumor cells will undergo EMT and invade the basal membrane of nearby blood vessels. The tumor cells are transported through the bloodstream to secondary sites and then begin to form colonies and undergo reverse EMT, the so-called “mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET).” This dynamic change involves cell morphology, environmental conditions, and external stimuli. Therefore, in this manuscript, the similarities and differences between EMT and MET will be dissected from embryonic development to the stage of cancer metastasis.

Although several biomarkers have been identified to predict the prognosis of lower-grade (Grade II/III) gliomas (LGGs), we still need to identify new markers to facilitate those well-known markers to obtain more accurate prognosis prediction in LGGs. Bioinformatics data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), the Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA), and the Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia (CCLE) datasets were used as the research materials. In total, 34 genes associated with the HIF1A pathway were analyzed using the hierarchical method to search for the most compatible gene. The BICD cargo adaptor 1 (BICD1) gene (BICD1) was shown to be significantly correlated with The hypoxic inducible factor 1A (HIF1A) expression, the World Health Organization (WHO) grade, and IDH1 mutation status. In addition, BICD1 downregulation was significantly correlated with a higher Karnofsky performance score (KPS), IDH1/TP53/ATRX mutations, wild-type EGFR, and younger patient age in the enrolled LGG cohort. Moreover, BICD1 expression was significantly upregulated in wild-type IDH1 LGGs with EGFR mutations. Kaplan–Meier survival analysis revealed that BICD1 downregulation predicts a favorable overall survival (OS) in LGG patients, especially in those with IDH1 mutations. Intriguingly, we found a significant correlation between BICD1 downregulation and a decreased level of CD274, GSK3B, HGF, or STAT3 in LGGs. Our findings suggest that BICD1 downregulation could be a potential biomarker for a favorable prognosis of LGGs.

The relatively high incidence and mortality rates for colorectal carcinoma (CRC) make it a formidable malignant tumor. Comprehensive strategies have been applied to predict patient survival and diagnosis. Various clinical regimens have also been developed to improve the therapeutic outcome. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are recently proposed cellular structures that can be produced by natural or artificial methods and have been extensively studied. In addition to their innate functions, EVs can be manipulated to be drug carriers and exert many biological functions. The composition of EVs, their intravesicular components, and the surrounding tumor microenvironment are closely related to the development of colorectal cancer. Determining the expression profiles of exocytosis samples and using them as indicators for selecting effective combination therapy is an indispensable direction for EV study and should be regarded as a novel prediction platform in addition to cancer stage, prognosis, and other clinical assessments. In this review, we summarize the function, regulation, and application of EVs in the colon cancer research field. We provide an update on and discuss potential values for clinical applications of EVs. Moreover, we illustrate the specific markers, mediators, and genetic alterations of EVs in colorectal carcinogenesis. Furthermore, we outline the vital markers present in the EVs and discuss their plausible uses in colon cancer patient therapy in combination with the currently used clinical strategies. The development and application of these EVs will significantly improve the accuracy of diagnosis, lead to more precise prognoses, and may lead to the improved treatment of colorectal cancer.