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In this article, we review the ways in which replication has been and could be featured in consumer behavior, using Journal of Consumer Research as a specific setting. We present a framework for thinking about the generalizability of research findings and differentiate various potential benefits that replication can have for understanding variability in consumer research findings. We then define four different types of replications, describe how researchers can use these approaches to produce distinct benefits, and give guidance regarding conducting, interpreting, and the potential contributions of these different types of replications. We conclude with a discussion of various ways in which replication could be more fully integrated into different phases of the scientific research process, taking into account the contribution necessary for publication. In particular, we identify opportunities to incorporate independent replication into original papers, to increase the replication-based contribution in papers that build on prior work, and to use systematic replication in conjunction with meta-analysis to synthesize and confirm conclusions from a mature research literature. More fully integrating replication into scientific practice can yield a new equilibrium, in which replication is routine, typically consistent with previous results, and recognized as necessary for establishing an empirical generalization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reproducibility is a fundamental principle in science, ensuring reliable and valid findings. However, replication studies are scarce, particularly in ecology, due to the emphasis on novelty for publication. We explored the possibility of replicating original findings in the field of microbial and chemical ecology by conducting a conceptual replication of a previous study analysing the sex-specific differences in the microbial communities inhabiting the wing sacs, a scent organ with crucial functions in olfactory communication, of greater sac-winged bat (Saccopteryx bilineata). In the original study, the skin swabs from the antebrachial wing sacs of the males and wing sac rudiments of the females were analysed using culture-dependent methods to test sex-specific differences. The authors demonstrated that males have lower microbial richness and different microbial composition than females. We attempted to reproduce these findings using 16S rRNA sequencing, which offers improved accuracy in pinpointing microbial members than culture-dependent methods because of advanced statistical methods. Our study validated the original study’s findings: Males had a lower microbial richness, and the community composition differed between the sexes. Furthermore, in the current study, males had an increased abundance of bacteria that might potentially be involved in odour production and degradation of malodorous substances and antimicrobial production. Our conceptual replication study corroborated that microbes can play a role in shaping their host’s olfactory phenotype and consequently influence sexual selection. Furthermore, the current study emphasises the importance of replication efforts and hopefully encourages a culture that values replication studies in scientific practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose that the epistemic functions of replication in science are best understood by relating them to kinds of experimental error/uncertainty. One kind of replication, which we call "direct replications," principally serves to assess the reliability of an experiment through its precision: the presence and degree of random error/statistical uncertainty. The other kind of replication, which we call "conceptual replications," principally serves to assess the validity of an experiment through its accuracy: the presence and degree of systematic errors/uncertainties. To illustrate the aptness of this general view, we examine the Hubble constant controversy in astronomy, showing how astronomers have responded to the concordances and discordances in their results by carrying out the different kinds of replication that we identify, with the aim of establishing a precise, accurate value for the Hubble constant. We contrast our view with Machery's "re-sampling" account of replication, which maintains that replications only assess reliability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) enables Artificial Intelligence (AI) to explain its decisions. This holds the promise of making AI more understandable to users, improving interaction, and establishing an adequate level of trust. We tested this claim in the high-risk task of AI-assisted mushroom hunting, where people had to decide whether a mushroom was edible or poisonous. In a between-subjects experiment, 328 visitors of an Austrian media art festival played a tablet-based mushroom hunting game while walking through a highly immersive artificial indoor forest. As part of the game, an artificially intelligent app analyzed photos of the mushrooms they found and recommended classifications. One group saw the AI's decisions only, while a second group additionally received attribution-based and example-based visual explanations of the AI's recommendation. The results show that participants with visual explanations outperformed participants without explanations in correct edibility assessments and pick-up decisions. This exhibition-based experiment thus replicated the decision-making results of a previous online study. However, unlike in the previous study, the visual explanations did not significantly affect levels of trust or acceptance measures. In a direct comparison, we consequently discuss the findings in terms of generalizability. Besides the scientific contribution, we discuss the direct impact of conducting XAI experiments in immersive art- and game-based environments in exhibition contexts on visitors and local communities by triggering reflection and awareness for psychological issues of human–AI interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occupational Information Network (O*NET) is a comprehensive job analysis repository, developed and periodically updated in the U.S. The study aims to validate O*NET in the Australian context and illustrate the potential to use O*NET as a source of robust occupational research data internationally. We first link O*NET data at the occupational level with individual-level data in the Australian Workplace Barometer (AWB) database containing a sample of 3,829 individuals working in 209 occupations. We then conceptually replicate the primary hypothesized relationships from nine published studies that used O*NET ratings of four job characteristics (job hazards, emotional labour requirements, job autonomy, and task significance) to predict work-related outcomes. Specifically, we selected the same O*NET job descriptors used in the nine studies and linked them to similar but not identical employee outcomes obtained from the AWB database. Multi-level analyses showed that the hypothesized relationships were predominantly supported at the occupational level, demonstrating the criterion validity of the O*NET job characteristic profiles in the Australian context. Overall, our research highlights the potential to use O*NET in research and policy applications on a broader international scale, predicated on obtaining solid validation evidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The current paper investigates the black sheep effect by testing how crime severity and shared identity with an offender affect retributive and restorative responses (study 1), and whether this relationship is mediated by emotion (study 2). Methods: Across two studies, we employed a 2 (crime severity) × 2 (shared identity) between-subjects factorial design. Study 2 served as a conceptual replication of study 1 and included emotions as mediators between our manipulations and justice responses. The studies were fielded to both undergraduate students and CloudResearch participants. Results: The black sheep effect was not supported in either study. Instead, severe crimes alone resulted in more retributive responses and this relationship was mediated by empathic anger. Conclusions: The results lend support to the notion that a violation of expected norms elicits a greater desire for just deserts. This finding was consistent and occurred regardless of shared values or interests with an offender. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across a series of 10 laboratory and online studies, Allard, Hardisty, and Griffin (2019) demonstrated an increased preference for premium, higher-priced products over standard products when consumers were presented with the additional cost of the higher-priced option (i.e., differential price framing; e.g., "for $20 more") rather than with its total price (i.e., inclusive price framing; e.g., "for $60 total"); a phenomenon referred to as the differential price framing effect. In this paper, we conceptually replicate this effect in a field experiment that focuses on the application of a differential price framing strategy to a specific product format; namely, multipacks of identical products. Consistent with the differential price framing effect, the present study shows—based on 45,626 add-to-cart events and 30,426 completed product purchases on an online retailer's website—that the choice shares of higher-priced options increase when a differential price framing strategy is used. However, compared to non-consequential add-to-cart activities, this bias is considerably less pronounced in actual purchase patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Replication is generally considered a keystone of the scientific enterprise. Unfortunately, in communication science, there is a lack of clarity on what a replication actually entails, and to what extent replicators may deviate from original studies. In order to support researchers in conducting, evaluating, and justifying the setup of replications of communication science experiments, we provide a taxonomy of replication types. We argue that researchers almost always need to adapt some elements of an original communication study to meaningfully replicate it. The extent to which deviations—ranging from mere updates to deliberate deviations and additions—are permissible, however, depends on the motivation behind conducting a replication study. We distinguish three basic motivations: verification of an original study’s findings, testing the generalizability of an original study (which we further differentiate into the generalizability of study outcomes vs. theoretical claims), and extending an original study beyond the original goals. We argue that these motivations dictate what types of deviations are permissible and thereby determine the type of replication (i.e., direct, modified, and conceptual). We end with concrete recommendations for replicators: to specify the motivation to conduct a replication study and clearly label and justify any deviations from the original study for all study elements.

In their study, Nishimura et al. (2022) examined the relationships between parental self-esteem and the levels of depression, autonomy, and career consciousness among children. They specifically focused on the mediating effect of parenting behaviors using triad data involving junior high school students and their parents. They proposed that these associations are mediated through parents’ and children’s perceptions of respecting their children’s thoughts, as well as fathers’ and children’s perceptions of positive responsiveness. However, the models developed by Nishimura et al. (2022) include several paths that have been explored during their investigation. This study examined the external validity of these models using a triad of data (N=642). This study did not replicate the models of Nishimura et al. (2022). However, the relationship between fathers’ self-esteem and children’s career consciousness was mediated by fathers’ and children’s perceptions of respecting children’s thoughts, and fathers’ and children’s perceptions of positive responsiveness. These results support the assertion of Nishimura et al. (2022) that parenting behaviors are essential for career consciousness among children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Positive valence links to one's upside and dominant hand/side, whereas negative valence is associated with one's downside and non-dominant hand/side (i.e., space-valence metaphor). Previous studies have indicated that the effect of the vertical-valence metaphor is more salient than that of horizontal-valence metaphor. Furthermore, this difference in saliency may be related to whether the experimental task is related to rapid reaction and reaction time (RT), which reflects processing fluency. The present study empirically examined these hypotheses by conducting RT (Experiment 1) and non-RT (Experiment 2) tasks (i.e., a detection task in which rapid reactions were required and a pointing task, respectively). We found that the effect of the vertical-valence metaphor occurred in the experiments, while the typical impact of the horizontal-valence metaphor was not found in either. Our findings suggest that the effect of the vertical-valence metaphor is salient, whereas the impact of the horizontal-valence metaphor is not robust. Moreover, this difference in saliency was independent of the type of experimental tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous randomized-controlled trials have shown that a peer learning group intervention for career preparation can have positive effects on adolescent career management and the transition to post-comprehensive education in secondary schools. However, this earlier evidence of efficacy has been found by intervention studies that have implemented the method intensively. Earlier studies suggest that tailoring implementation strategies to fit organizational processes may offer opportunities to improve the sustainability and scalability of evidence-based practices. In this study, the implementation of the career preparation intervention was integrated into the school curriculum as a part of regular career counselling, lengthening the delivery timeframe of the intervention programme and using the schools' own guidance counsellors as intervention providers. We conducted a conceptual replication study to investigate how effectively the adapted intervention programme enhanced perceived career preparation skills by carrying out a new cluster randomized-controlled trial among 1068 pupils. Linear mixed models showed that the effect of peer learning sessions on career choice preparedness was positive in comparison to that in the control group. The result suggests that the adapted intervention programme preserved its identifiable positive effects, although dismissing intensive delivery features somewhat reduced the effect size. These study results have implications for school-based career counselling interventions as schools seek to identify evidence-based methods that are cost-efficient and may be integrated into regular school routines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meat consumption has detrimental environmental effects. Research shows that social norms are important when it comes to meat consumption. However, social norm interventions have shown mixed effects regarding their effectiveness for decreasing meat consumption. Therefore, an experiment was conducted (n = 279) with a 2 (baseline meat consumption: above- vs. below-average) x 3 (social norm feedback: descriptive norm only, descriptive plus injunctive norm, no feedback) x 3 (time: T0 [baseline], T1 [+1 week from baseline], T2 [+2 weeks from baseline]) mixed-factorial design. Results showed that reported changes in meat consumption at T1 and T2 relative to T0 were not different after receiving social norm feedback (i.e. descriptive norm only or descriptive plus injunctive norm) compared to receiving no feedback. Irrespective of the social norm feedback condition, participants reporting above-average meat consumption at baseline reduced their consumption, whereas those reporting below-average meat consumption at baseline increased their consumption over time. A plausible explanation for these findings may be statistical regression to the mean. Further understanding is needed of how social norm interventions may be used to reduce meat consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Activity psychology as a metatheory competes with cognitive psychology in the explorative and predictive power. Phenotypical similarity of the results obtained by these two approaches in the research on involuntary memory requires a special analysis, which can be carried out by testing the applicability of the conceptual apparatus of both theories (with the highest relevance of the level of processing framework) in multifactorial studies. Objective. The study was aimed at a direct experimental examination of the severity of involuntary memorization as an outcome of performing tasks with different requirements to the level of processing: perceptual, semantic, and self-referential. Sample. Eight hundred twenty-five volunteer students participated in the study, 598 females (72.5%) and 227 males (27.5%). Methods. A set of 15 visually overlapping dyads “picture-numeral” was presented. Each participant was randomly assigned to perform one of six tasks either focusing on pictures or numerals, and requiring either perceptual, semantic, or self-referential processing of targets. At test, the participants attempted to recall all the presented stimuli. Results. P.I. Zinchenko’s thesis that activity determines involuntary encoding in the way that target stimuli are remembered much better than material perceived as a peripheral context was empirically replicated. The study revealed the inversion of typical LOP effect for the target material consisting in the decrease of subsequent recall in condition of deeper processing. However, there was a standard LOP effect for background pictorial material in numeral-targeted tasks. To examine the tendency to conjunct overlapping pictures and numerals into entire objects during task performance, we inspected the pairing of background and target stimuli at recall. The background pairing index predicted recall of target stimuli, increasing the percentage of explained dispersion from shadow to deep processing. In case of control for this index, the sum remembering of pictures and numerals returned back to the standard LOP-effect. Conclusion. The major contribution of activity to involuntary memorization was statistically confirmed. We explained the observed inversion of the standard LOP-effect for targeted numerical stimuli in terms of A.N. Leontiev’s thesis on the fundamental functional mobility of structural units of activity. We examined a tendency to actively combine target and background stimuli into integral operational units, making the initially background material relevant to the goal of action. Statistical control of this tendency reversed the inversion of the LOP-effect so that the sum recalls gradually increased as processing deepened. Thus, we got arguments in favor of the greater explanatory power of the activity approach compared to the standard cognitive approach. The potential of A.N. Leontiev’s theory was employed for the productive assimilation of particular conceptual schemes developed by cognitive psychology and clarifying their place in the multilevel determination of involuntary mnemonic effects generated by activity.

This study is a conceptual replication of a widely cited study by Moffitt et al. (2011) which found that attention and behavior problems in childhood (a composite of impulsive hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive-aggressive behaviors labeled "self-control") predicted adult financial status, health, and criminal activity. Using data from longitudinal cohort studies in the United States (n = 1,168) and the United Kingdom (n = 16,506), we largely reproduced their pattern of findings that attention and behavior problems measured across the course of childhood predicted a range of adult outcomes including educational attainment (βU.S. = −0.22, βU.K. = −0.13) and spending time in jail (ORU.S. = 1.74, ORU.K. = 1.48). We found that associations with outcomes in education, work, and finances diminished in the presence of additional covariates for children's home environment and achievement but associations for other outcomes were more robust. We also found that attention and behavior problems across distinct periods of childhood were associated with adult outcomes. Specific attention and behavior problems showed some differences in predicting outcomes in the U.S. cohort, with attention problems predicting lower educational attainment and hyperactivity/impulsivity predicting ever spending time in jail. Together with the findings from Moffitt et al., our study makes clear that childhood attention and behavior problems are associated with a range of outcomes in adulthood for cohorts born in the 1950s, 1970s, and 1990s across three countries. Public Significance Statement: This study reveals that findings from Moffitt et al. (2011) that children exhibiting attention and behavior problems had greater financial struggles, poorer health, and a greater likelihood of criminality once they reached adulthood, generalized to cohorts born in different decades in the United States and the United Kingdom. Given the consistency of findings across cohorts, attention, and behavior problems in childhood appear to make it difficult to meet the demands of one's environment throughout development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We provide a conceptual replication of an experimental study that uncovered a robust correlation between the strength of individuals' family ties and their distrust of strangers, striving to establish whether the link is causal. Using a different subjects pool and an online setting, we repeat the binary trust-game experiment from Ermisch and Gambetta and enrich it by manipulating the payoffs to create a low-trust and high-trust environment. The key finding is corroborated, but as expected, only in the high-trust environment. The two environments further allow us to impose a diff-and-diff design on the data, which rules out selection of low-trusting individuals into strong-tied families and gives us indirect evidence of causation, namely, that having strong family ties stunts the development of trust in strangers. Our findings support the emancipatory theory of trust proposed by Toshio Yamagishi and could be interpreted as uncovering the micro foundations of classic ethnographic studies, such as that by Edward Banfield, which described how subcultures fostering tight bonds within families or small groups make cooperation harder to be achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of proficiency is widely discussed in multilingual language acquisition research, and yet, there is little consensus as to how one should operationalize it in our empirical investigations. The present study assesses the validity of the LexTALE (Lemhöfer & Broersma, 2012) as a 'quick and valid' measure of global proficiency. We first provide an overview review of how the LexTALE has been used since its publication, showing that although the test has gained popularity in the last few years, its reliability has not been thoroughly examined. Thus, herein we present results of a partial replication of Lemhöfer and Broersma (2012), where we empirically assess the validity of the LexTALE as a measure of L2 global proficiency in two groups of learners of English with various degrees of proficiency (L1 Spanish, n = 288; L1 Chinese, n = 266). Results indicate that if we are to use LexTALE in our investigations, we should do so with caution as the analyses show that irrespective of the L1 and level of proficiency of the targeted participants, its reliability as a measure of global proficiency is under question evidenced by the low and moderate correlations found with a standardised measure of global proficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is a conceptual replication of Chen, Zhang, Gong, Lee, and Wang's (2020) study that examines factors influencing the intention to decrease problematic Information Systems (IS) use. In contrast with Chen et al.'s smartphone gaming context, we apply their theoretical model to the context of digital streaming services. Aligned with the original study, we tested the model using a scenario-based survey. Results are largely consistent with the original study, albeit with several exceptions. Our findings support that protection motivation theory (PMT) is useful in explaining decreasing problematic use in situations of threats. Threats are the negative consequences caused by problematic streaming service use. Users experience fear when they believe the negative consequences are likely to occur, and the consequential harm will be serious if they occur. When threatened, users are more motivated to decrease use if they believe decreasing use is effective in mitigating the threat and they have confidence in executing it. However, such motivation is not influenced by costs incurred by decreasing use. Further, we validate that invoking fear can break users' viewing habits, which promotes their intention to decrease use. Yet, such an effect is limited. Future research might explore other factors that are effective in breaking users' viewing habits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: One factor which is consistently highlighted in research on literacy is the lack of understanding of how literacy develops in the Southern-Bantu languages. In particular, little is known about spelling in the Southern-Bantu languages such as isiXhosa. Objectives: Through the use of an initial exploratory study and a conceptual replication study, we examined the relationships between reading, phonological awareness, and spelling in isiXhosa grade 3 learners. The initial exploratory study sought to describe the relationships between reading and spelling, and phonological awareness and spelling in a sample of 49 grade 3 isiXhosa learners. We then conceptually replicated this study with a larger sample of 200 grade 3 isiXhosa learners. We expected that both reading and phonological awareness would be related to spelling and that the strength of the relationship between reading and spelling, and phonological awareness and spelling would vary with spelling ability, due to the changes that occur in the development of spelling. Method: Cross-sectional, quantitative secondary data were used from two different projects to answer the research questions. Tasks of phonological awareness, oral reading fluency and spelling were developed and administered to the participants. Results: We found that reading was a replicable predictor of spelling for grade 3 isiXhosa learners and that phonological awareness was influential only at the mid-range of spelling performance. Conclusion: Our findings emphasise the importance of the reading – writing connection, and lend support for what has been found for other consistently written languages, adding to the growing body of knowledge of universal predictors of spelling development.

The central core theory establishes that the organization of a social representation depends on a distinction between central and peripheral cognitions. Only the first ones are considered as particularly linked to the group identity. Previous works showed that, contrary to peripheral cognitions, central cognitions are subject to social valorization within the group. The present contribution aimed to conceptually replicate this finding, and to explore new hypotheses. We implemented two self-presentation paradigms (N = 161 and N = 183) using two different measures of adherence to social representation's cognitions. The previous results related to the social value of central cognitions were replicated twice in a row. However, both studies also highlighted the social value of peripheral cognitions and of the adherence to the social representation in its entirety. These results constitute interesting theoretical advancements, especially in the study of the articulation between social representations and social identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A recent meta-analysis demonstrated the overall correlation between the number line estimation (NLE) task and children’s mathematical competence was r = .44 (positively recoded), and this relation increased with age. The goal of the current study was to conceptually replicate and extend these results by further synthesizing this correlation utilizing studies not present in the meta-analysis. Across seven studies, 954 participants, ranging from 3 to 11 years old (Age M = 6.02 years, SD = 1.57), the overall estimation-competence correlations were similar to those of the meta-analysis and ranged from r = −.40 to −.35. The current conceptual replication demonstrated that the meta-analysis captured a stable overall relation between performance on the NLE task and mathematical competence. However, the current study failed to replicate the same moderation of age group presented in the meta-analysis. Furthermore, the current study extended results by assessing the stability and predictive validity of the NLE task while controlling for covariates. Results suggested that the NLE task demonstrated poor stability and predictive validity in the seven samples present in this study. Thus, although concurrent relations replicated, the differential age moderation, lack of stability, and lack of predictive validity in these studies require a more nuanced approach to understanding the utility of the NLE task. Future research should focus on understanding the connection between children’s developmental progression and NLE measurement before further investigating the predictive and diagnostic importance of the task for broader mathematical competence.

The problem of what characterises preschool teaching emerged in 2010, when the Swedish Education Act began regulating teaching in Swedish preschools. There are few comprehensive long-term studies that investigate teaching conducted in collaboration between preschool teachers, managers, and researchers, and that focus on testing not just one but multiple theory-informed teaching arrangements in preschools. Furthermore, there is a dearth of replication studies in general and of conceptual replication studies of collaborative research focused on preschool teaching in particular. This themed issue presents the results of a collaborative conceptual replication study based on a research and development (R&D) programme entitled “Multivocal teaching in preschools”. The issue is practically and theoretically positioned in a Continental–Nordic didaktik tradition, specifically a critical-reflective one. The articles in this themed issue present the results of testing theory-informed teaching arrangements in preschools, in which didaktik are combined with different content and teaching foci. One overarching contribution in this publication is the concept of multivocal didaktik modelling. This concept has been tried out in comprehensive collaborations and includes scientific bases and proven experiences that emerged in multivocal traces and didaktik models, in plural. Multivocal didaktik modelling are positioned within the framework of democratic values and in relation to the complex teaching realities in preschool. Overall indications of a contribution to knowledge development involve theory-informed practical development and practice-based theoretical and conceptual development. The concept of multivocal didaktik modelling can be further elucidated in future studies.

Abstract Recent large‐scale projects in other disciplines have shown that results often fail to replicate when studies are repeated. The conditions contributing to this problem are also present in ecology, but there have not been any equivalent replication projects. Here, we survey ecologists' understanding of and opinions about replication studies. The majority of ecologists in our sample considered replication studies to be important (97%), not prevalent enough (91%), worth funding even given limited resources (61%), and suitable for publication in all journals (62%). However, there is a disconnect between this enthusiasm and the prevalence of direct replication studies in the literature which is much lower (0.023%: Kelly 2019) than our participants' median estimate of 10%. This may be explained by the obstacles our participants identified including the difficulty of conducting replication studies and of funding and publishing them. We conclude by offering suggestions for how replications could be better integrated into ecological research.

This paper describes an independently evaluated randomised controlled trial of a self-affirmation intervention, replicating earlier studies, mostly conducted in the US with ethnic minority students. Self-affirmation theory suggests that some stigmatised groups, such as those from ethnic minority or poor families, face stereotype threats which undermine their academic performance. Engaging in value affirmation writing activities when such threats are most salient can give individuals a positive sense of value, negating harmful feelings, and fostering academic learning. The present study, involving 10,807 pupils aged 14 to 16 in England showed that the intervention can be successfully replicated with children from low socioeconomic backgrounds in England. The analysis showed positive effects for the intervention group. Pupils who completed more exercises also performed better. The findings are worth consideration given that it costs virtually nothing and does no harm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: One factor which is consistently highlighted in research on literacy is the lack of understanding of how literacy develops in the Southern-Bantu languages. In particular, little is known about spelling in the Southern-Bantu languages such as isiXhosa. Objectives: Through the use of an initial exploratory study and a conceptual replication study, we examined the relationships between reading, phonological awareness, and spelling in isiXhosa grade 3 learners. The initial exploratory study sought to describe the relationships between reading and spelling, and phonological awareness and spelling in a sample of 49 grade 3 isiXhosa learners. We then conceptually replicated this study with a larger sample of 200 grade 3 isiXhosa learners. We expected that both reading and phonological awareness would be related to spelling and that the strength of the relationship between reading and spelling, and phonological awareness and spelling would vary with spelling ability, due to the changes that occur in the development of spelling. Method: Cross-sectional, quantitative secondary data were used from two different projects to answer the research questions. Tasks of phonological awareness, oral reading fluency and spelling were developed and administered to the participants. Results: We found that reading was a replicable predictor of spelling for grade 3 isiXhosa learners and that phonological awareness was influential only at the mid-range of spelling performance. Conclusion: Our findings emphasise the importance of the reading – writing connection, and lend support for what has been found for other consistently written languages, adding to the growing body of knowledge of universal predictors of spelling development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The classical core system of face perception consists of the occipital face area (OFA), fusiform face area (FFA), and posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS). The functional interaction within this network, more specifically the effective connectivity, was first described by Fairhall and Ishai (2007) using functional magnetic resonance imaging and dynamic causal modeling. They proposed that the core system is hierarchically organized; information is processed in a parallel and predominantly feed-forward fashion from the OFA to downstream regions such as the FFA and STS, with no lateral connectivity, i.e., no connectivity between the two downstream regions (FFA and STS). Over a decade later, we conducted a conceptual replication of their model using four different functional magnetic resonance imaging data sets. The effective connectivity within the core system was assessed with contemporary versions of dynamic causal modeling.The resulting model of the core system of face perception was densely interconnected. Using hierarchical linear modeling, we identified several significant forward, backward, and lateral connections in the core system of face perception across the data sets. Face perception increased the forward connectivity from the OFA to the FFA and OFA to the STS and increased the inhibitory backward connectivity from the FFA to the OFA, as well as the lateral connectivity between the FFA and STS. Emotion perception increased forward connectivity between the OFA and STS and decreased the lateral connectivity between the FFA and STS. Face familiarity did not significantly alter these connections.Our results revise the 2007 model of the core system of face perception. We discuss the potential meaning of the resulting model parameters and propose that our revised model is a suitable working model for further studies assessing the functional interaction within the core system of face perception. Our work further emphasizes the general importance of conceptual replications.

The present study attempts to replicate and extend Snyder et al. (2015, JPSP). The original study examined the latent factor structure of the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire–Revised (EATQ-R), a commonly used measure of adolescent temperament, and showed that the resulting latent factors (i.e., effortful control, negative emotionality, and positive emotionality) had theoretically meaningful concurrent associations with several measures of adolescent functioning (depression, anxiety, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], relational aggression, and school performance and behavior). We performed these same analyses using data from a large sample of Mexican-origin youth (N = 674), and also examined prospective associations between the three EATQ-R factors and measures of adolescent functioning assessed two years later. We found some evidence supporting the bifactor models reported in the original study but poor replication of the correlations among latent factors. Additionally, model comparisons demonstrated that correlated factors models produced more interpretable factors than the bifactor models. In contrast, we replicated most of the concurrent correlations (and extended the findings to prospective associations) between the EATQ-R factors and measures of adolescent functioning, supporting the construct validity of the EATQ-R as a measure of adolescent temperament. Thus, these findings raise concerns about the generalizability of the factor structure identified by Snyder et al. (2015), but bolster claims about the generalizability of the concurrent and predictive validity of the EATQ-R. Overall, differences between the present findings and those of Snyder et al. (2015) highlight the importance of ongoing construct validation in youth temperament research, especially with participants from groups traditionally underrepresented in psychological research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This study successfully replicated an earlier randomized control trial. • We examined parent and teacher interventions with an online, remote delivery approach. • Both the original and remote study increased targeted teacher and parent behaviors. • The magnitude of adult effects was larger in the remote study than the original study. • Both studies found larger social-behavioral effects than academic effects for children. This replication study examined remote delivery of 2 evidence-based prekindergarten (pre-k) interventions to evaluate whether the combination of interventions, one in Head Start classrooms (online The Early Education Model, eTEEM) and one in the home (online Play and Learning Strategies, ePALS) resulted in enhanced effects on at-risk 3- to 5-year-old children's school readiness skills when compared to either of these interventions alone. The aligned interventions trained adults – teachers and parents – to use responsiveness and guided learning approaches within routine activities with the aim of increasing children's social-behavioral and academic skills. Both the original in-person study (Landry et al., 2017) and the present remote study used a four-group factorial design. The present study first randomized classrooms to eTEEM (n = 36) or control (n = 33). Next, within classrooms, parent-child dyads were randomized to ePALS or No ePALS, resulting in four conditions: n = 186 eTEEM/ePALS; n = 151 eTEEM/No ePALS; n = 160 No eTEEM/ePALS; and n = 133 No eTEEM/No ePALS control. The original study found small to moderate effects on parent and teacher behaviors (d = 0.18 to 0.55). In this remote study, there were generally larger parent and teacher effects for responsiveness (g = 0.63 to 0.70) and for guided learning (g = 0.37 to 1.05), behaviors targeted by the interventions. Results of the original study showed few effects on children's academic outcomes and the strongest effect on children's social-behavioral skills for the parent intervention (d = 0.15 to 0.19). The present study produced similar patterns of results for child outcomes with larger social-behavioral effects (g = 0.19 to 0.27) than academic (g = -0.23 to 0.30). We discuss the importance of these replication findings when delivering interventions remotely to improve scalability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has found that thinking about the presence of a partner in one's life can, at least temporarily, increase relationship satisfaction. However, other studies have found that doing the opposite—thinking about the absence of a partner from one's life (i.e., mentally subtracting a partner)—can boost relationship satisfaction. The current study is a conceptual replication and extension of a previous study demonstrating that people who imagined never meeting their current partner reported greater satisfaction than people who thought about the presence of a partner in their life or a neutral control. We expected that thinking about the absence of a partner could boost gratitude and, in turn, promote greater relationship satisfaction. However, we did not find support for the mental subtraction effect on relationship satisfaction or gratitude. That is, participants who mentally subtracted their romantic partners from their lives did not report greater relationship satisfaction or gratitude compared to participants who thought about the presence of their partner in their lives (or those in a control condition). Our study suggests that mentally subtracting positive life events may not always boost feelings of satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moody et al. (2018) presented a unified model of information security policy compliance (UMISPC) to explain information systems security (ISS) behaviors. The model was empirically tested against 3 main types of security-related behavior: USB practices, not locking computers appropriately, and password issues. In this study, we present a conceptual replication of Moody et al. (2018) in order to provide stronger empirical support. To this end, our study has empirically examined UMISPC through three types of ISS behaviors within a work environment in the European Union (EU), where General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is in force. The replication of the empirical study with the three scenarios is original. While the replication in general highlights the strength of UMISPC, the results also indicate some differences from the original study and show that there is still room for improving some of its theoretical concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent large‐scale projects in other disciplines have shown that results often fail to replicate when studies are repeated. The conditions contributing to this problem are also present in ecology, but there have not been any equivalent replication projects. Here, we survey ecologists' understanding of and opinions about replication studies. The majority of ecologists in our sample considered replication studies to be important (97%), not prevalent enough (91%), worth funding even given limited resources (61%), and suitable for publication in all journals (62%). However, there is a disconnect between this enthusiasm and the prevalence of direct replication studies in the literature which is much lower (0.023%: Kelly 2019) than our participants' median estimate of 10%. This may be explained by the obstacles our participants identified including the difficulty of conducting replication studies and of funding and publishing them. We conclude by offering suggestions for how replications could be better integrated into ecological research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundTill et al. (2016) reported that in an Austrian sample approximately one in ten respondents incorrectly believed that Austria still practices, or recently practiced, the death penalty, and that there is a positive association between the amount of weekly television viewing and this gross misperception of the Austrian justice system.MethodsAn endorsed, prereviewed, preregistered close (N = 597) served to test the veracity of these reported effects. This was coupled with the conceptual extension part, which (a) investigated the potential influence of watching American crime series, (b) accounted for further possible confounds, and (c) tested the generalizability of the effect of television viewing to online streaming.ResultsOnline survey data (N = 597) replicated the one-in-ten prevalence of incorrect answers with the 5-item death penalty questionnaire used in the original study, but not, when asking directly about Austria’s death penalty practices (prevalence: 0.3%). Younger age, but not the amount of television viewing or online streaming, suggestibility, or preferred TV genre consistently predicted incorrect answers in the death penalty questionnaire. Incorrect answers were Mokken-scalable (i.e., formed a common scale, complying with a non-parametric item response model) and were highly consistent. In contrast to the replication study results, a small meta-analysis of all available evidence (three studies, including the present replication) suggested that the aggregate effect of television viewing nominally was significant, albeit small.ConclusionThe replication study yielded mixed results, which indicate the perception of a high prevalence of beliefs that there is capital punishment in a country without death penalty probably is due to a faultily designed questionnaire and thus a research artifact. Also, positive associations of television viewing with such beliefs likely are only small at best.

Information security compliance behavior research has produced several theoretical models derived from different disciplines to explain or predict violations of information security policies (ISP) or related employee intentions. The application of these theories to ISP violations has led to an increasing number of information security behavioral models. Based on this observation, Moody et al. (2018) reviewed and empirically compared 11 theories that predict information system security behavior using a Finnish sample. Drawing on these findings, they derived and tested a unified model of ISP compliance (UMISPC). This study is a conceptual replication of the refined UMISPC by Moody et al (2018). For the replication, we considered the general tendency to violate policy rather than respondents considering specific behaviors according to the scenario approach that Moody et al. (2018) used to test the refined UMISPC. Further, in contrast to Moody et al. (2018), we tested the refined UMISPC with respondents from Germany. In our data, we found empirical evidence for seven of the eight proposed relationships of the refined UMISPC. Only the relationship between fear and reactance remained insignificant in our estimation. Although more research is necessary to confirm our results, we interpret them as further support for the model’s generalizability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Does a more or less sympathetic protagonist influence transportation of the reader? Two new replication studies Three previous studies into presenting a protagonist in a story as more or less sympathetic have not provided a clear picture of the effects that the portrayal of the protagonist may have on transportation, and via transportation on story-consistent beliefs. Results from a first study (N = 83) by De Graaf and Hustinx (2015) suggest that the way the protagonist is portrayed – as sympathetic, unsympathetic or neutral – influences the extent to which readers are transported into a story. No significant effects on beliefs of the readers were found, however. In a direct replication study (N = 79) and in a conceptual replication study (N = 81), Jansen, Nederhoff, and Ooms (2017) found results that supported the hypotheses from the original study to a limited extent. In view of the relatively small numbers of participants in these three studies and the resulting limited power of the statistical tests two new, larger-scaled replication studies were conducted. A direct replication study was performed (N = 238) with the same versions of the story as used in the original study, and also a conceptual replication study (N = 248) with three versions of a new story. Again, the hypotheses from the original study were supported to a limited extent. A meta-analysis of all five studies revealed a large indirect positive effect of story version on transportation via empathy, when comparing the versions with a sympathetic protagonist with the versions with an unsympathetic protagonist. When comparing the neutral story versions with the versions with an unsympathetic protagonist, the meta-analytic indirect effect was medium sized. Other than what the Affective Disposition Theory (Raney, 2004; Zillmann, 1994; 2006) claims, the story versions with a neutral protagonist did not lead to an absence of emotional responses. Furthermore, the outcomes add to the Transportation-Imagery Model (Green & Brock, 2002; Van Laer, De Ruyter, Visconti, & Wetzels, 2014). While this model does not include concrete suggestions of story characteristics that lead to transportation, our studies show that a protagonist who is portrayed as sympathetic may contribute to the level of transportation that readers experience, be it indirectly through empathy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Till et al. (2016) reported that in an Austrian sample approximately one in ten respondents incorrectly believed that Austria still practices, or recently practiced, the death penalty, and that there is a positive association between the amount of weekly television viewing and this gross misperception of the Austrian justice system. Methods: An endorsed, prereviewed, preregistered close (N = 597) served to test the veracity of these reported effects. This was coupled with the conceptual extension part, which (a) investigated the potential influence of watching American crime series, (b) accounted for further possible confounds, and (c) tested the generalizability of the effect of television viewing to online streaming. Results: Online survey data (N = 597) replicated the one-in-ten prevalence of incorrect answers with the 5-item death penalty questionnaire used in the original study, but not, when asking directly about Austria's death penalty practices (prevalence: 0.3%). Younger age, but not the amount of television viewing or online streaming, suggestibility, or preferred TV genre consistently predicted incorrect answers in the death penalty questionnaire. Incorrect answers were Mokken-scalable (i.e., formed a common scale, complying with a non-parametric item response model) and were highly consistent. In contrast to the replication study results, a small meta-analysis of all available evidence (three studies, including the present replication) suggested that the aggregate effect of television viewing nominally was significant, albeit small. Conclusion: The replication study yielded mixed results, which indicate the perception of a high prevalence of beliefs that there is capital punishment in a country without death penalty probably is due to a faultily designed questionnaire and thus a research artifact. Also, positive associations of television viewing with such beliefs likely are only small at best. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shimizu, Nakashima, and Morinaga (2016) reported that tendencies consistent with defensive pessimism (DP) are positively associated with considerate and respectful behavioral intentions toward strangers. However, two limitations hinder the generalizability of their findings: (1) their participants were exclusively female students of a women’s junior college, and (2) the cognitive strategy scale used in their study did not take all four types of cognitive strategy; i.e., DP, strategic optimism (SO), realistic pessimism (RP), and unjustified optimism (UO), into consideration. We replicated Shimizu et al. (2016) with adult respondents and used a different scale to enhance the generalizability of the results. Japanese adults (N=337) participated in an online survey. Path analysis of their responses indicated that a relationship exists between DP and behavioral intentions, which was consistent with the findings reported by Shimizu et al. (2016). The study also produced exploratory evidence that individuals that exhibit UO show less considerate and respectful behavioral intentions in interpersonal contexts than those who display SO or RP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Conceptual replication of vignette study on physical attractiveness and attributions of guilt and punishment. • Attributions of guilt and punishment were related to anti-doping rule violation severity. • Target sex and physical attractiveness were unrelated to attributions of guilt and punishment. • An attractive leniency effect is likely to be negligible or trivial in the context of sport doping. Abstract The attractive-leniency effect predicts that more attractive people are perceived as less guilty and less deserving of punishment compared to less attractive people. This closely aligned conceptual replication study sought to explore athlete physical attractiveness, sex, and anti-doping rule violation severity (ADRV) as factors contributing to attributions of guilt and punishment. After initial pilot testing, 411 participants (135 men, 276 women; M age = 20.30, SD = 4.69 years) were shown one of eight vignette-photograph pairings that differed in sex (male/female), ADRV severity (serious/minor), and physical attractiveness (high/low). Participants were asked to provide attributions of guilt, severity of punishment, and most appropriate course of action (sport-related punishment). Analyses of variance showed that attributions of guilt and punishment were related to ADRV severity, but there were no significant main or interaction effects for physical attractiveness on any of the outcome variables. Follow-up sensitivity analyses provided some evidence that less attractive athletes are afforded harsher punishments (reflecting a longer suspension from sport) than more attractive athletes, but this finding was not robust. Overall, the findings of this initial research indicate that an attractive leniency effect is likely to be trivial or negligible in the context of anti-doping rule violations in sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to conceptually replicate previous research. It detected subgroups of psychological flexibility (PF), which are based on the overall PF subcomponent, using latent class analysis and examined the relationships among the subgroups, well-being, and psychological distress. A total of 672 Japanese community sample participants completed the online survey. Analyses revealed three distinct profiles, namely, high-, moderate-, and low-PF groups. Well-being and psychological distress significantly differed across the groups. The high-PF group exhibited the highest levels of well-being and the lowest levels of distress, while the opposite results are true for the low-PF group. Furthermore, the high-PF group included more men than women and older participants. These results were almost consistent with previous data and demonstrated the stability of the subgroup structures of the PF level. The study discussed future directions for the PF profiles and cultural variables. • Latent class analysis identified three psychological flexibility profiles in Japan. • High flexibility was associated with high well-being and low psychological distress. • More males were classified in the high flexibility group than females. • Positive association between psychological flexibility and age was indicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reinvestigates the cognitive theory of collective mindfulness on organizational Information Systems performance by conducting a methodological replication of Khan, Lederer, and Mirchandani's (2013) study. Collective mindfulness in the context of organizational information systems (IS) has significant effects on effectiveness and performance. We found that upper management concern and support for IS influences organizational performance through collective mindfulness. Upper management concern for typical and atypical situations and their associated repercussions on performance require solutions in real-time and concern for alternative problem-solving methods. Collective mindfulness addresses the notion of a more in-depth and purposeful analysis of potential catalysts negatively affecting performance. Future studies are encouraged to strengthen this study through construct improvement including the addition of relevant dimensions to collective mindfulness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The protection motivation theory (PMT) is widely used in behavioral information security research, with multiple instantiations of the theoretical model applied in the literature. The purpose of this study is to perform a theoretical (conceptual) replication of both the core and full (PMT) nomologies in the context of voluntary password manager application use for individual home end-users. In our study, the full PMT model explained more variance than the core PMT model, but the relationships between multiple behavioral antecedents differed between the core and full PMT models, possibly due to differences in model complexity. Our findings suggest that researchers should justify the version of the PMT that they choose to use based on their research objectives with the understanding that the same variables may be significant in one version of the PMT but not significant in another version of the PMT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper tackles a problem in the candidate reactions literature: the replicability of results that emerge when using in vivo and in vitro designs. The current study was designed to provide a conceptual replication of a dynamic model of change in fairness perceptions during the hiring process, using a different research design, different measures, and a different sample than the original paper. A sample of 209 participants in a simulated selection process reported their level of perceived fairness three times: before the testing, after the testing, and after the results were communicated. These results support the results of the original that the construction of fairness perceptions declines in a nonlinear way over time, with high initial levels of fairness perception corresponding to a lower rate of decline, and vice versa. Further analysis revealed no change in the individuals' conceptualization of perceived fairness nor any shift in the respondents' use of the measurement scale (i.e., no beta and gamma change were detected). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to examine whether the early and late start typology of criminal behaviour in major mental disorder can be generalized to different populations than evaluated to date and is replicable in two different countries. A Dutch forensic sample (Sample 1) consisted of 260 reports to the court with early start offenders (n= 62) and late start offenders (n= 198). A Canadian civil psychiatric sample (Sample 2) consisted of file information collected from 78 involuntarily hospitalized civil psychiatric patients with an early start group (n= 38) and a late start group (n= 40). In both samples, early and late starters were compared on different domains. Results showed that in general, early starters have a higher risk of having problems in different domains. There were also differences in the early and late start typology between the Dutch and Canadian samples. Our results partially support the early and late starter typology within two different samples. This study showed that early starters typically have a higher risk of problems in different domains. This highlights the importance of different risk management and treatment strategies for both the early start and the late start group. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Approximately 22 people die each day in the United States as a result of the shortage of transplantable organs. This is particularly problematic among Spanish-dominant Hispanics. Increasing the number of registered organ donors can reduce this deficit.~Context~Background~The goal of the current set of studies was to conceptually replicate a prior study indicating the lack of utility of a lone, immediate and complete registration opportunity (ICRO).~Objective~Objective~The study, a quasi-experimental design involving a total of 4 waves of data collection, was conducted in 2 different Mexican consulates in the United States. Guided by the IIFF Model (ie, an ICRO, information, focused engagement, and favorable activation), each wave compared a lone ICRO to a condition that likewise included an ICRO but also included the 3 additional intervention components recommended by the model (ie, information, focused engagement, and favorable activation).~Design and Setting~Methods~Visitors to the Mexican consulates in Tucson, Arizona, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, constituted the participant pool.~Participants~Methods~New organ donor registrations represented the dependent variable.~Main Outcome Measure~Methods~When all 4 components of the IIFF Model were present, approximately 4 registrations per day were recorded; the lone ICRO resulted in approximately 1 registration every 15 days.~Results~Results~An ICRO, without the other components of the IIFF Model, is of minimal use in regard to garnering organ donor registrations. Future studies should use the IIFF Model to consider how the utility of ICROs can be maximized.~Conclusion~Conclusions [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Kammermeier and Paulus (2018) report a partial replication of the results of Rubio-Fernández and Geurts (2013) but present their study as a failed replication. Paulus and Kammermeier (2018) insist on a negative interpretation of their findings, discrediting the Duplo task against their own empirical evidence. Here I argue that Paulus and Kammermeier may try to make an impactful contribution to the field by adding to the growing skepticism towards early Theory of Mind studies, but fail to make any significant contribution to our understanding of young children's Theory of Mind abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conceptual replication within a computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environment provides an understanding of the generalizability of second language acquisition (SLA) research (Porte, 2013; Smith & Schulze, 2013). The present study replicates Collentine (1998a), a classroom-based experiment framed within a larger discussion on the relative benefits of input- and output-based instruction. Collentine (1998a) compared the benefits of Processing Instruction (VanPatten, 2004) and output-based instruction, both of which elevated the Spanish subjunctive's communicative value. The results showed that input- or output-oriented instruction informed by how learners process grammatical information can affect the acquisition of complex grammatical phenomena. This conceptual replication not only seeks to corroborate the original study's findings in a new learning context. It also tests the finding's generalizability to a tutorial CALL environment built on 3D simulations and emerging web-app technologies. The participants were foreign-language learners of Spanish in a classroom-based curriculum (N = 50). The results indicate that, in the classroom and in a CALL environment, both input- and output-oriented approaches can promote the acquisition of a complex grammatical structure if practice is meaningful (informed by psycholinguistic processing principles) and deliberate, and if feedback is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Political and cultural polarisation are leading explanations for climate change denial and inactions as seen in the Cultural Cognition Thesis (CCT). In this view, individuals hold positions on contested issues to conform to their ideological groups: people ascribe to certain beliefs, not to express what they know but to show their group identity. We present a conceptual test of the CCT using high-quality cross-national data from 21 European countries, Russia, and Israel (total N = 44,378). Climate change concern was correlated with identification with the political left (r s = 0.04–0.13), egalitarianism (r s = 0.04–0.13) and communitarianism (r s = 0.01–0.07), but in a broad definition cultural cognition was a weak predictor of climate change beliefs (R 2 = 3.82%), policy preferences (R 2 = 2.09%), and actions (R 2 = 0.62%). Moreover, climate change polarisation was not greatest among the highly educated as predicted by the CCT. Education was positively associated with climate beliefs (r s = 0.07–0.17), irrespective of political affiliation. Non-linear regressions indicated little evidence that the CCT's predictions held better for more extreme ideological groups. These results suggest cultural cognition may not be central to thoughts about climate change in Europe. • Cultural cognition factors were relatively weak predictors of climate change beliefs, policy-preferences and actions across 23 countries. • Education mitigates the effects of political polarisation in the climate change debate. • There was little evidence that the CCT's predictions held better for more extreme ideological groups. • Political ideology and cultural worldviews may not be central to thoughts about climate change in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many researchers have discussed replication as a means to facilitate self-correcting science, in this article, we identify meta-analyses and evaluating the validity of correlational and causal inferences as additional processes crucial to self-correction. We argue that researchers have a duty to describe sampling decisions they make; without such descriptions, self-correction becomes difficult, if not impossible. We developed the Replicability and Meta-Analytic Suitability Inventory (RAMSI) to evaluate the descriptive adequacy of a sample of studies taken from current psychological literature. Authors described only about 30% of the sampling decisions necessary for self-correcting science. We suggest that a modified RAMSI can be used by authors to guide their written reports and by reviewers to inform editorial recommendations. Finally, we claim that when researchers do not describe their sampling decisions, both readers and reviewers may assume that those decisions do not matter to the outcome of the study, do not affect inferences made from the research findings, do not inhibit inclusion in meta-analyses, and do not inhibit replicability of the study. If these assumptions are in error, as they often are, and the neglected decisions are relevant, then the neglect may create a good deal of mischief in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]