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Introduction Adolescence is a critical period in brain development, and it is characterized by persistent maturational alterations in the function of central nervous system. In this respect, many studies show the non-medical use of opioid drugs by adolescents. Although this issue has rather widely been addressed during the last decade, cellular mechanisms through which adolescent opioid exposure may induce long-lasting effects are not duly understood. The present study examined the effect of adolescent morphine exposure on neuronal responses of lateral paragigantocellularis nucleus to naloxone in adult morphine-dependent rats. Methods Adolescent male Wistar rats (31 days old) received increasing doses of morphine (from 2.5 to 25 mg/kg, twice daily, s.c.) for 10 days. Control subjects were injected saline with the same protocol. After a drug-free interval (20 days), animals were rendered dependent on morphine during 10 days (10 mg/kg, s.c., twice daily). Then, extracellular single-unit recording was performed to investigate neural response of LPGi to naloxone in adult morphine-dependent rats. Results Results indicated that adolescent morphine treatment increases the number of excitatory responses to naloxone, enhances the baseline activity and alters the pattern of firing in neurons with excitatory responses in adult morphine-dependent rats. Moreover, the intensity of excitatory responses is reduced following the early life drug intake. Conclusion It seems that prolonged opioid exposure during adolescence induces long-lasting neurobiological changes in LPGi responsiveness to future opioid withdrawal challenges. Keywords: Adolescence, Morphine, Single-unit recording, LPGi nucleus, Rat, Author(s): Sara Sabuee[sup.1], S. Mohammad Ahmadi-Soleimani[sup.2] and Hossein Azizi[sup.1] Introduction Opioid derivatives have long been used in societies for both therapeutic (mainly analgesic) and euphoric (rewarding) purposes. However, long-term consumption [...]

Previous research has identified school bonding as protective against substance use during adolescence. However, there is still a question as to whether school involvement predicts changes in substance use or if substance use actually predicts changes in level of school bonding. This study investigated the relationship between school bonding and alcohol use, which is commonly recognized as gateway drug, during early adolescence. A three-wave longitudinal analysis was conducted on a sample composed of 161 Italian adolescents (51% boys, 49% girls, mean age = 11.14 years, standard deviation =.40). Associations were analyzed by using crossed-lagged autoregressive models in MPlus. Findings revealed that greater school involvement decreased alcohol consumption from Grade 6 to Grade 7. However, greater alcohol use decreased school involvement from Grade 7 to Grade 8. Findings of this study underlined the importance of choosing the right time for prevention., School experiences are recognized as important factors linked to substance use (e.g., alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana) in adolescence. Previous research has extensively documented the relationships between cigarette, alcohol, and other [...]

Panel surveys are widely used in sociology to examine life-course trajectories and to assess causal effects. However, when using panel data researchers usually assume that the act of measuring respondents' attitudes and behaviors has no effect on the attributes being measured or on the accuracy of reports about those attributes. Evidence from cognitive psychology, marketing research, political science and other fields suggests that this assumption may not be warranted. Using a rigorous experimental design, we examine the magnitude of panel conditioning bias--the bias emerging from having answered questions in prior waves of a survey--in a panel study of substance use among adolescents in Chile. We find that adolescents who answered survey questions about alcohol, cigarette, marijuana and cocaine use were considerably less likely than members of a control group to report substance use when re-interviewed one year later. This finding has important implications, and also points to the need for sociologists to be concerned about panel conditioning as an important methodological issue., Social scientists who analyze longitudinal data nearly always assume that the act of measuring respondents' attributes does not alter the object under investigation. When researchers observe change over time in [...]

Objective: This study examined (a) the predictive value of observed versus reported measures of impulsivity on the onset of cannabis use and determined if lifetime tobacco and cannabis users can be differentiated by their level of impulsivity and (b) the predictive value of observed versus reported measures of impulsivity un repeated cannabis use and determined if repeated tobacco and cannabis users can be differentiated by their level of impulsivity. Method: The present study involves 667 (50.5% female) adolescents assessed at two time points &the TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS). Adolescents in our study participated in the Bangor Gambling Task (BGT), as well as completed self-report questionnaires assessing cannabis use behavior ([M.sub.age] = 16.11 years) and the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)/Behavioral Activation System (BAS) questionnaire ([M.sub.age] = 13.56 years). Results: Higher levels of BAS functioning increased the Likelihood that adolescents would ever use substances such as tobacco or cannabis during their lifetime. In contrast, low BIS functioning increased the likelihood of repeated cannabis use. Repeated tobacco users did not significantly differ from lifetime users by their BIS functioning. The BGT measures were not significant in relation to lifetime or repeated use of cannabis or tobacco. Conclusions: High BAS seems to be more important for experimental substance use, whereas low BIS seems to be more important for progression into regular cannabis use specifically. In contrast to the BIS/BAS, our laboratory test of impulsivity, the BGT, is not correlated with early-onset tobacco/cannabis use. Furthermore, the BGT is not correlated with the BIS/BAS measures. (J Stud. Alcohol Drugs, 72. 70-78, 2011), ADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD are the life span periods in which experimentation with substances, such as cannabis, is most likely to begin (Anthony and Petronis, 1995; Kandel et al., 1992; [...]

Objective: When asked about substance use, youths typically endorse higher levels of use than parents, suggesting that parents are often unaware of their child's drug and alcohol use. This study sought to examine the level of concordance between reports of youths enrolled in public sectors of care and their parents, and identify potential predictors of parental awareness of substance use and related problems. Method: Youths receiving services in one or more public sectors of care (N = 985; 67% male) and their parents were interviewed about the youths' substance use and substance use problems, as well as associated demographic, parental, and youth factors. Results: As has been found in other studies, youths generally reported higher rates of substance use and substance use problems compared with parents. Rates of agreement ranged from [kappa] = .24 (sedatives) to [kappa] = .67 (marijuana) and were higher for drug problems ([kappa] = .47) than for alcohol problems ([kappa] = .34). Predictors of parental awareness of drug problems included youth gender (male), race (White compared with Hispanic), and higher ratings of youth's functional impairment. Predictors of parental awareness of alcohol problems included race (White compared with Hispanic), lower levels of youth-reported parental monitoring, lower levels of parental depression, and higher ratings of youth functional impairment. Conclusions: In this high-risk population, a significant proportion of parents are unaware of their child's alcohol (30%) and substance use (50%) problems. Services geared toward enhancing parental awareness, especially for parents of Hispanic and female youths, may increase communication and treatment seeking. (J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs, 72, 44-52, 2011), ALTHOUGH THERE HAVE BEEN RECENT minimal declines in the prevalence of youth substance use (Johnston et al., 2009), levels remain high and represent a significant public health concern. Roughly 47% [...]

Byline: Emily E. Tanner-Smith (1) Keywords: Body weight; Pubertal development; Pubertal timing; Substance use Abstract: Despite knowledge that early pubertal timing predicts adolescent girls' substance use, it is still unclear whether this relationship persists beyond early adolescence and whether it is conditional on girls' body weight. This study examined the moderating role of body weight in the association between early pubertal timing and adolescent girls' substance use using three waves of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The analytic sample included 5,591 adolescent girls attending middle-schools and high-schools in the United States (ages 10--15, 71% White, 14% Black). Results indicated that early pubertal timing was associated with substance use risk but effects were attenuated after controlling for prior use. Body weight moderated the association between early pubertal timing and girls' reported number of substances tried in middle adolescence. Body weight magnified the risk of having tried one substance, but buffered the risk of having tried three substances. Among those girls who did use substances, body weight did not moderate the relationship between early pubertal timing and heavy substance use. It is concluded that the substance use risk associated with early pubertal timing is most salient during the developmental period in adolescence when sensitivity to bodily changes may be heightened. Author Affiliation: (1) Peabody Research Institute, Vanderbilt University, Box 0181 GPC, 230 Appleton Place, Nashville, TN, 37203, USA Article History: Registration Date: 24/11/2009 Received Date: 14/09/2009 Accepted Date: 23/11/2009 Online Date: 06/12/2009

We critically review recent studies to examine the measurement schemes and empirical models used to examine adolescent drug use, with a particular eye toward determining whether differences between the prevalence and frequency of use have been addressed. Several theoretical models suggest that there are differences but we find relatively few studies that have considered prevalence versus frequency, even though selection effects that dictate these processes affect conclusions about predictors of drug use. Using data from the 2004 U.S. National Survey of Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), (n=16,235), we provide an empirical example of why distinguishing prevalence and frequency of use is important. In particular, gender, age, and parent-child arguments are associated with the prevalence, but are not associated with the frequency of drug use. The associations between grades, religiousness, positive parental relations and drug use are overestimated substantially absent controls for the selection process inherent in the shift from any use to frequency of use. We therefore contend that adolescent drug use studies require greater attention to this selection process.

A progressive and hierarchical sequence of drug use suggests that a sequence of stages of drug use can describe the order by which adolescents try drugs. We propose an operational definition to test gateway relations by providing a framework with the aim of describing a set of conditions to guide the evaluation of whether a drug serves as a gateway for another drug. We used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to demonstrate how using latent transition analysis we can estimate the odds of using a drug at a later time conditional on having used a gateway drug at an earlier time. We provide three empirical demonstrations for testing the gateway relations using a national and longitudinal data of adolescents (e.g., gateway relation between cigarettes and marijuana, alcohol and marijuana, and alcohol and cigarettes).

Drawing on stress and life-course perspectives and using panel data from 1,286 south Florida young adults, we assess three critical questions regarding the role of marijuana in the 'gateway hypothesis' First, does teen marijuana use independently (causally) affect subsequent use of more dangerous substances? Second, if so, does that effect apply to the abuse of other illicit substances, as defined by the DSM-IV, or only to the use of such substances? Finally, does any causal effect of teen marijuana use survive beyond adolescence, or is it a short-term effect that subsides as adolescents transition to adulthood? Our results indicate a moderate relation between early teen marijuana use and young adult abuse of other illicit substances; however, this association fades from statistical significance with adjustments for stress and life-course variables. Likewise, our findings show that any causal influence of teen marijuana use on other illicit substance use is contingent upon employment status and is short-term, subsiding entirely by the age of 21. In light of these findings, we urge U.S. drug control policymakers to consider stress and life-course approaches in their pursuit of solutions to the 'drug problem.' Keywords gateway hypothesis, drug use and abuse, life-course, stress, social roles DOI: 10.1177/0022146510378238

Based on a literature review, it is found that the barriers to treatment for adolescents with substance use and co-occurring disorders are mainly caused by the fragmented health care system. Opportunities for increasing treatment access by this group are discussed in light of the health care reform.

Little systematic research attention has been devoted to the impact of natural disasters on adolescent substance use. The present study examined relationships among exposure to Hurricane Rita, post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptoms, and changes in adolescent substance use from 13 months pre-disaster to seven and 19 months post-disaster. Subjects were 280 high school students in southwestern Louisiana who participated in a drug abuse prevention intervention trial prior to the hurricane. Two-thirds of participants were female and 68% were white. Students completed surveys at baseline (13 months pre-hurricane) and two follow-ups (seven and 19 months post-hurricane). Results indicated a positive bivariate relationship between PTS symptoms, assessed at 7 months post-hurricane, and increases in alcohol (p < .05) and marijuana use (p < .10) from baseline to the 7 months post-hurricane follow-up. When these associations were examined collectively with other hurricane-related predictors in multivariate regression models, PTS symptoms did not predict increases in substance use. However, objective exposure to the hurricane predicted increases in marijuana use, and post-hurricane negative life events predicted increases in all three types of substance use (ps < .10). These findings suggest that increased substance use may be one of the behaviors that adolescents exhibit in reaction to exposure to hurricanes.

Objective: We examined the long-term effects of childhood familial and neighborhood risk on adolescent substance use and psychiatric symptomatology. Method: This study used data from an ongoing 2-decade long study that recruited alcoholic and neighborhood control families through fathers' drunk-driving records and door-to-door canvassing in a four county area. The sample included 220 male, initially 3- to 5-year-old children of the participant families, who received in-home assessments at baseline and thereafter at 3-year intervals. Parental lifetime psychopathology and offspring symptomatology at ages 18-20 were assessed by semistructured diagnostic interviews. Census tract variables were used to indicate neighborhood characteristics. Results: The isomorphic parental symptomatology predicted offspring psychopathology. For marijuana-use disorder, major depressive disorder, and nicotine dependence, the other parental comorbidities were also significant predictors. Neighborhood residential instability in childhood contributed to the development of late adolescent alcohol-use disorder, marijuana-use disorder, major depressive disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and nicotine-dependence symptomatology. Although lower family socioeconomic status in childhood contributed to more adolescent marijuana-use disorder, major depressive disorder, and nicotine-dependence symptoms, neighborhood socioeconomic status did not predict adolescent psychopathology. Longitudinal changes in neighborhood environments from early childhood to adolescence had significant effects on alcohol-use disorder, marijuana-use disorder, and major depressive disorder symptoms in late adolescence. A higher frequency of family mobility from early childhood to adolescence predicted more nicotine-dependence symptoms in late adolescence. Conclusions: Findings indicate that parental psychopathology, family socioeconomic status, and neighborhood residential instability are all important risk factors for the development of substance-use disorder and other comorbid psychopathology. Intervention programming might effectively use these early parental psychopathology indicators to identify risk and might target community activity to stabilize the social environment and provide youth services to counteract the effects of family transience., CHARACTERIZATION OF NEIGHBORHOOD effects on children's behavioral or mental health problems can provide important information for prevention programming as well as policy making. Existing studies addressing this issue are mostly [...]

Prior research indicates that many young people associate substance use with immediate pleasures and rewards, including kicks, thrills, excitement, or relief from psychic pain. Moreover, the anticipation of such rewards appears to represent a significant motivating force behind adolescent substance use. Yet, while substance use is rewarding and reinforcing for many young people, the reward potential of drugs/alcohol appears to be highly variable across individuals. For instance, some youths do not associate substance use with pleasurable effects and this fact requires explanation. In this paper, the writer proposes an integrated theoretical model that attempts to account for individual variation in the reward potential of drugs and alcohol It is argued that this model may also help to predict the future behavior of adolescent substance users. Data from a large survey of adolescents are used to conduct an initial test of the proposed model. The implications of the findings for theory and research are discussed.

Objective: To examine disparities in hazardous and harmful drinking, illicit drug use, delinquency, and psychological distress among three immigrant generations of youth. Methods: Data on 4,069 students were derived from the 2005 cycle of the Ontario Student Drug Use Survey, a provincewide school-based survey of 7th to 12th graders. The survey employed a two-stage cluster design (school, class). Analyses include adjustments for the complex survey design, specifically stratification, clusters, and weights. Results: Both drug use and hazardous and harmful drinking increase across immigrant generations. First-generation youth report significantly less use than second-generation youth, who in turn report less use than third and later generations. Generational differences in the levels of hazardous and harmful drinking increase with age. Delinquency is significantly less among first-generation youth relative to youth of other immigrant generations. Symptoms of psychological distress are highest among first-generation youth compared to youth of other immigrant generations. Conclusion: The nature of differences between foreign- and native-born adolescents varies across behaviours. As such, it is important to gain knowledge about the adjustment levels of these two groups with regard to specific components of well-being. Such knowledge is necessary for developing policies and programs to promote emotional and behavioural health. Key words: Immigrants; adolescents; substance use; delinquency; psychological distress; Ontario Objectif : Examiner les disparites entre la consommation alcoolique dangereuse et dommageable, l&apos;usage illicite de drogues, la delinquance et la detresse psychologique pour trois generations de jeunes immigrants. Methodes : Les donnees relatives a 4 069 etudiants ont ete derivees du Sondage de 2005 sur la consommation de drogues parmi les eleves de l&apos;Ontario, une enquete scolaire provinciale realisee aupres d&apos;etudiants de la 7e a la 12e annee. Le sondage a utilise une methode de grappes a deux etages (ecole, classe). Les analyses comprennent des ajustements pour la conception de sondage complexe, et plus particulierement une stratification, des grappes et des ponderations. Resultats : L&apos;usage des drogues et la consommation alcoolique dangereuse et dommageable sont en hausse dans toutes les generations d&apos;immigrants. Les jeunes de premiere generation presentent un usage beaucoup moins marque que ceux de la deuxieme generation qui, a leur tour, consomment moins que les jeunes de la troisieme generation et des generations suivantes. Les differences entre les generations sur le plan des niveaux de consommation alcoolique dangereuse et dommageable augmentent en fonction de l&apos;fge. La delinquance chez les jeunes de la premiere generation est beaucoup moins marquee que chez les jeunes immigrants des generations suivantes. Les symptomes de detresse psychologique chez les jeunes de la premiere generation sont beaucoup plus frequents que chez les jeunes immigrants des generations suivantes. Conclusion : La nature des differences entre les adolescents etrangers et les adolescents nes au pays varie selon le comportement. A ce titre, il est important de mieux connaEtre les niveaux d&apos;ajustement de ces deux groupes a l&apos;egard des composantes particulieres du mieux-etre. Ces connaissances sont necessaires pour elaborer les politiques et les programmes qui favoriseront la sante emotive et comportementale. Mots cles : immigrants; adolescents; consommation d&apos;alcool et de drogues; delinquance; detresse psychologique; Ontario, Foreign-born children and children with foreign-born parents represent an estimated 20% of individuals under the age of 18 in Canada, with a projected increase to 25% by 2016. (1) These [...]

Objective: This article aims to contribute to the literature by reporting on a nationally representative study of U.S. youths regarding their self-reported reasons for abstaining from or quitting marijuana use and the relationships between such reasons and individual sociodemographic characteristics of gender and race/ethnicity. Method: This article uses data from in-school surveys obtained from nationally representative cross-sectional samples of U.S. high school seniors from 1977 to 2005 (N = 82,106). Results: Results indicate the following: (1) 50% of those reporting past-12-month marijuana use felt they should either stop or reduce their use; (2) among those saying they would not use marijuana in the coming year, the most frequently reported reasons cited were psychological and physical damage and not wanting to get high (reported by more than 60%), whereas the least frequently reported reasons included expense, concerns of having a bad trip, and availability (reported by fewer than 25%); and (3) clear differences existed in reported reasons by gender and race/ethnicity. Conclusions: A significant percentage of U.S. high school seniors who are recent marijuana users wish to either reduce or stop their marijuana use and are basing such desires on a wide variety of reasons that show significant gender and racial/ethnic variation. Marijuana prevention and cessation policy and programming could potentially be strengthened by incorporating the findings from these analyses., MARIJUANA HAS LONG BEEN the subject of intense political debate as to the dangers and benefits of its use (Goode, 1997; Grinspoon, 1971; Kaplan, 1970; Moore et al., 2007). Practitioners [...]

This study examines the growth of alcohol and marijuana use during early adolescence among a sample of 746 Indigenous youth (aged 10-12 years at wave 1; 50.3% female) of the upper Midwest and Canada, with a special focus on potential gender differences in these patterns. Research documenting the disproportionately high rates of Indigenous substance use, coupled by our lack of understanding of gender patterns among this group--especially in very early adolescence--highlight the need for this culturally specific work. Results of latent growth curve analyses from three waves of annual data collection indicate that the females in our sample engage in alcohol and marijuana use at rates similar to or greater than their male peers. This finding counters conventional ideas of gender and substance use that place young males at elevated rates of use compared to females, and also adds to our understanding of gendered substance use patterns among Indigenous youth.

Objective: This study examined the extent to which youthful alcohol consumption and the initiation of tobacco, betel nut, and other illegal drugs may differ by their first drinking context in Taiwan--a society with social norms that are more tolerant of underage drinking. Method: In 2004, in a nationally representative sample of 11,943 school-attending youth ages 15-18, information pertaining to sociodemographic characteristics, problem behaviors, lifetime experiences of alcohol, tobacco, betel nut, and illegal drugs, as well as psychoactive, drug-specific age of initiation, context at first use, average frequency, and recency of use. was assessed by anonymous questionnaires. Results: Youth who had their first alcoholic beverages in entertainment settings or at friends' houses were more likely to become frequent drinkers. After adjustment for socioeconomic background and problem behaviors, having had the first drink in entertainment settings was associated with a faster progression into the initiation of illegal drugs (hazard ratio [HR] - 2.5, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.5-4.0) and betel nut (HR - 1.5, 95% CI; 1.1-2.1). Conclusions: Youthful drinking pattern and transition from alcohol to betel nut and illegal drugs may vary modestly by the first drinking context. This context may be recognized as a proxy variable to identify youth at a higher risk for alcohol and other drug problems and to devise context-based educational or prevention programs., ALCOHOL USE AND RELATED PROBLEMS in adolescence continue to cause public health concern in many industrialized countries (Bonnie and O'Connell, 2004; O'Malley et al., 1998). A number of studies have [...]

Matching methods such as nearest neighbor propensity score matching are increasingly popular techniques for controlling confounding in nonexperimental studies. However, simple k: 1 matching methods, which select k well-matched comparison individuals for each treated individual, are sometimes criticized for being overly restrictive and discarding data (the unmatched comparison individuals). The authors illustrate the use of a more flexible method called full matching. Full matching makes use of all individuals in the data by forming a series of matched sets in which each set has either 1 treated individual and multiple comparison individuals or 1 comparison individual and multiple treated individuals. Full matching has been shown to be particularly effective at reducing bias due to observed confounding variables. The authors illustrate this approach using data from the Woodlawn Study, examining the relationship between adolescent marijuana use and adult outcomes. Keywords: longitudinal studies, long-term consequences, observational study, propensity score, substance use Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/l0.1037/0012-1649.44.2.395.supp

Objectives. We compared prevalence rates and correlates of substance use among high school students in South Africa and the United States. Methods. We used weighted data from 2 nationally representative surveys of high school students. We conducted bivariate and multivariate analyses and examined between-country differences in rates and correlates of substance use were examined. Results. Rates of past-month alcohol and marijuana use were lower among South African students than among US students, but rates of illicit hard drug use were higher. Correlates of use in the 2 countries differed. For example, female gender was protective against tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use in South Africa, whereas in the United States it was protective only against marijuana use. Black race/ethnicity was associated with lower rates of past-month cigarette and alcohol use in both countries, but the protective effect for alcohol use was stronger in South Africa. Conclusions. Crosscultural studies can elucidate common and culturally unique pathways to drug use. Our results can inform future research, policies, and behavioral interventions in South Africa. (Am J Public Health. 2007,97:1859-1864. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.086330)

Objectives. We investigated the consequences of exposure to acts of terrorism among Israeli adolescents. We examined Whether exposure to terrorism predicted adolescents' use of cigarettes, alcohol (including binge drinking), and cannabis after we controlled for posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms and background variables. Methods. Anonymous self-administered questionnaires were given to a random sample of 960 10th and 11th grade students (51.6% boys, 48.4% girls) in a large city in northern Israel. Results. Close physical exposure to acts of terrorism predicted higher levels of alcohol consumption (including binge drinking among drinkers) and cannabis use. These relationships remained even after we controlled for posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms. Conclusions. In addition to posttraumatic stress symptoms, negative consequences of terrorism exposure among adolescents included substance abuse. The similarity between our findings among Israeli adolescents and previous findings among US adults suggests cross-cultural generalizability. Given the risks for later problems from early-onset substance abuse, the consequences of terrorism exposure among adolescents merit greater research and clinical attention. (Am J Public Health. 2007;97:1852-1858. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.090514)

Byline: Laura M. Bogart (1), Rebecca L. Collins (1), Phyllis L. Ellickson (1), David J. Klein (1) Keywords: adolescence; life satisfaction; substance use; young adulthood Abstract: The present study investigated whether adolescent cigarette, alcohol, marijuana, and hard drug use predicts life satisfaction in young adulthood. Survey data were used from a longitudinal cohort of 2376 adolescents at ages 18 and 29, originally recruited from California and Oregon middle schools at age 13. Results of multivariate models indicated that use of cigarettes and hard drugs at age 18 was associated with lower life satisfaction at age 29, controlling for adolescent environmental, social, and behavioral factors related to lower life satisfaction, including poor mental health, loneliness, poor social skills, and Black race. Adolescent alcohol and marijuana use were not significantly related to adult life satisfaction. Low income, poor health, and cigarette use during adulthood each independently mediated the relationship between adolescent cigarette use and adult life satisfaction, together explaining 84.58% of the effect. Adult hard drug use mediated the effect of adolescent hard drug use, explaining 54.79% of the effect. Results suggest that some forms of adolescent substance use limit socio-economic opportunities, and have a lasting effect on health, consequently decreasing life-satisfaction. Continued use of substances may also lead to lower subjective well-being over time. Findings indicate a need for programs that increase social skills and effectively prevent adolescents from using substances, perhaps by incorporating information about consequences of use for socio-economic status, health, and well-being over the long term. Author Affiliation: (1) RAND Corporation, 1776 Main Street, 2138, 90407-2138, Santa Monica, CA Article History: Registration Date: 23/03/2006 Accepted Date: 22/03/2006 Online Date: 19/09/2006 Article note: This research was funded by grant R01 DA 13515 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Many adolescents use alcohol and drugs (AODs); however, most do not seek help because of stigma or confidentiality concerns. Providing services in settings that teens frequent may decrease barriers. We examined the feasibility of adapting a brief motivational intervention (MI) for high-risk adolescents (age 12-18 years) in a primary care (PC) setting by conducting small feedback sessions with adolescents, parents, and clinic staff, and pilot testing the MI with adolescents. Findings from feedback sessions indicated that clinic staff thought teens would not talk about AOD use. In contrast, adolescents reported that they would talk about their AOD use; however, they were afraid of being judged. Parents were also concerned that the PC provider might be judgmental. Feedback from the MI pilot indicated that teens were willing to talk about their AOD use and indicated readiness to change. Findings suggest that providing a brief MI in a PC setting is a viable approach for working with high-risk youth. Keywords: Adolescents; Drug and alcohol use; Motivational intervention; Primary care

In the first phase of a two-part treatment development study, families with a treatment-resistant drug-abusing adolescent (n = 42) were offered 12 sessions of Community Reinforcement and Family Training (CRAFT). This parent-focused intervention was designed to help parents facilitate their adolescents' entry into treatment, to support adolescents' subsequent behavior change, and to improve parent and family functioning. In the second phase, successfully engaged adolescents (n = 30) were offered 12 sessions of a multicomponent individual cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) targeting substance use and related problem behaviors. For parents and adolescents, measures were collected on pretreatment and posttreatment, with an additional follow-up assessment for parents at 3 months after treatment. Parents on CRAFT intervention experienced a significant reduction in negative symptoms, and 71% of parents were successful in engaging their resistant youths in treatment. The CBT intervention for engaged youths was associated with a statistically significant, but not clinically significant, reduction in marijuana use. Keywords: Adolescents; Substance abuse; Treatment engagement; CRAFT; Treatment outcome

Addressing the science-service gap, we examined in this study the amenability of a large heterogeneous sample of community-based therapists in the state mental health and substance abuse treatment sectors to learn about an evidence-based practice (EBP) for adolescent substance abuse (i.e., contingency management [CM]) when such learning was supported administratively and logistically. Leadership in most (44 of 50) public sector agencies supported practitioner recruitment, and 432 of 543 eligible practitioners subsequently attended a 1-day workshop in CM. Workshop attendance was predicted by organizational factors but not by practitioner demographic characteristics, professional background, attitudes toward EBPs, or service sector. Moreover, the primary reason for workshop attendance was to improve services for adolescent clients; the primary barriers to attendance, for those who did not attend, were practical in nature and not due to theoretical incompatibility. The findings demonstrate a considerable amount of interest practitioners showed in both the substance abuse and mental health sectors in learning about an EBP. Keywords: Substance abuse; Adolescents; Contingency management; Evidence-based practice

Representative data show that drug abuse, delinquency, and suicide attempts are major concerns among adolescent Hispanic females. Although comorbidity research indicates that such problems tend to be related to each other, this research largely neglects Hispanic females. Using data from presentence investigations on 141 Hispanic girls sentenced to probation, the present research assesses the prevalence of drug abuse, delinquency, suicide attempts, physical and sexual abuse, and self-mutilation as well as the extent of comorbidity among these problems. Results show very high levels of violent delinquency, marijuana abuse, suicide attempts, and self-mutilation. Comorbidity was also extensive between suicide attempts, self-mutilation, physical and sexual abuse, and between these variables and drug abuse and certain forms of delinquency. This study is among the first to describe the problems of adolescent Hispanic females and highlights the need for additional research to better understand and address the serious issues many of these young women face. Keywords: Hispanic females; comorbidity; delinquency; drug abuse; suicide attempts

An important but understudied aspect of substance use research is its relationship to characteristics of the community, including if there are differences in the association between peer and family factors with use between youth living in rural and urban areas. The results of this study are based on a statewide survey of approximately 4,400 youth in a southwestern state. It tested for the inequality of coefficients from regression equations on three measures of substance use: an overall scale, alcohol use, and marijuana use. The relationship of peer influence on substance use was stronger among urban-located youth; however, there were no rural-urban differences for family factors. Keywords: substance use; rurality; urbanity; community; social disorganization

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.10.009 Byline: Daniel F. Becker (a), Carlos M. Grilo (b) Keywords: Adolescents; Alcohol abuse; Drug abuse; Gender Abstract: The authors examined psychosocial correlates of drug and alcohol abuse in 462 hospitalized adolescents, and the extent to which these associations may be affected by gender or by substance type. Participants completed a battery of psychometrically-sound, self-report measures of psychological functioning, environmental stress, drug abuse, and alcohol abuse. Four multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the joint and independent predictors of drug abuse and alcohol abuse, for males and for females. Multiple regression analysis revealed that seven variables -- age, depression, impulsivity, low self-esteem, delinquent predisposition, low peer insecurity, and history of child abuse -- jointly predicted both drug and alcohol abuse, for both males and females. However, several differences were found with respect to which variables made independent contributions to the predictive models -- with only delinquent predisposition making a significant independent contribution for all four conditions. We found distinct patterns of psychosocial predictor variables for drug and alcohol abuse, as well as distinct patterns for males and females. These results may reflect differing risk factors for drug abuse and alcohol abuse in adolescent psychiatric patients -- and differing risk factors for males and females. Such differences have potential implications for prevention and treatment. Author Affiliation: (a) Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, USA (b) Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA Article History: Received 21 December 2004; Revised 6 June 2005; Accepted 14 October 2005

This article examines the role of family structure in the self-reported lifetime and past month use of marijuana within a sample of American children. The research makes comparisons between youths living in two parent homes where both the biological father and mother are present and those who live in single parent, stepparent, or nonparent families. The results show that youths living in two parent families are far less likely to report ever having used marijuana, associate with marijuana using friends, or have siblings who use marijuana. Youths from two parent families, even those typified by high levels of tension in the household, are shown to report less use of marijuana than youths from low or high conflict homes where one or both of the biological parents are absent. The findings are similar for both males and females. Implications of the results as well as directions for future research are presented.

During the past five years, a few studies have reported that college students are using stimulants such as Ritalin without a prescription. To date, studies on college Ritalin/Adderall use have been from samples in the eastern or midwestern U.S. This study was designed to examine risk and protective factors associated with Ritalin/Adderall use among a college sample in Southern California. Our findings indicate that 11.2% of students reported past year and over 4% reported past 30 day use of Ritalin/Adderall. In our final analysis, students with lower GPAs, in a fraternity/sorority, not in a committed relationship, and who smoke and use other drugs were more likely to report past year and past 30 day Ritalin/Adderall use. Implications for prevention programming of these findings are discussed.

Although recent increases in collegiate prescription drug misuse have generated a great deal of concern, there are few analyses available that examine the sociocultural factors influencing these trends. This article attempts to address this gap in knowledge by providing an analysis of several socio-cultural factors influencing pharmaceutical misuse by college students. Prescription drugs are put to a number of different purposes in the collegiate setting, including self-medication, socio-recreation, and academic functioning. Such misuse is acceptable in a social context where individuals deliberately attempt to experiment with drugs. Widespread knowledge regarding effects, dosages, and compatibilities with other drugs, coupled with the extensive availability of pharmaceuticals in collegiate social circles, makes this class of drugs an attractive alternative to other psychoactive substances. These factors underscore several implications for substance abuse prevention efforts on college campuses and suggest a number of important issues for further research.

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00916.x Abstract: The developmental trajectories of behavioral control and resiliency from early childhood to adolescence and their effects on early onset of substance use were examined. Behavioral control is the tendency to express or contain one's impulses and behaviors. Resiliency is the ability to adapt flexibly one's characteristic level of control in response to the environment. Study participants were 514 children of alcoholics and matched controls from a longitudinal community sample (Time 1 age in years: M=4.32, SD=0.89). Children with slower rates of increase in behavioral control were more likely to use alcohol and other drugs in adolescence. Children with higher initial levels of resiliency were less likely to begin using alcohol. Author Affiliation: (1)Idaho State University (2)Michigan State University (3)University of Michigan Article note: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Maria M. Wong, Department of Psychology, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID 83209-8112. Electronic mail may be sent to wongmari@isu.edu.

This study examined links between parent-youth differential acculturation and youth substance-use likelihood in a sample of 73 recently immigrated Latino families with middle-school-aged youth. Multiple agents were utilized to assess family functioning and youth outcomes. Findings suggested that a greater level of differential acculturation between parents and youth was associated with greater likelihood of future youth substance use. However, the relationship between differential acculturation and youth substance use was mediated by family stress processes and effective parenting practices. Differential acculturation was related to increases in family stress and decreases in effective parenting practices, and each of these, in turn, was related to increases in future substance-use likelihood among Latino youth. Findings implicate the need for advancing policies and practices that address acculturation as a family process, rather than as merely an individual psychological phenomenon. Key Words: adolescent substance use, differential acculturation, Latino families, parenting.