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Objective To provide an update on the key characteristics, refinements to project flow, and future opportunities for a program providing customized research evidence to health system policymakers and providers. Approach With a goal to inform health system decision making, the program answers research questions posed by health system requestors that can be answered with linked, population-based administrative data. Now in its 10th year of operation, the program has been refined over time to improve efficiency, usefulness of research products, and requestor satisfaction. Satisfaction surveys and individual-level engagements with requestors are used to collect feedback on the needs of an increasingly diverse group of requests. Results With 508 requests, 82 Data Sharing Agreements, and 257 unique requestors since its inception, the program informs governmental decision making, evaluates intervention effectiveness, and aids grassroots organizations’ planning for services. Notable updates to the program include, inserting multiple opportunities for connection between the program and requestors through the project life cycle to understand goals and needs; assigning staff scientists to shepherd projects and promote efficiency; training coordinators to review privacy impact assessments; and (soon) accepting a broader range of projects to include data beyond the health sector e.g. education. Conclusion This program continues to improve and is an exemplar of sustainable approaches to supporting health system requestors with evidence from administrative data in program evaluation, planning and policy change. Implications Being responsive to requestor needs has allowed the program to attract an increasingly diverse range of requesters who can obtain impactful and timely research evidence.

Objective Stewards of population-level data have an obligation to serve the public interest. As one such publicly funded data steward, our Public Advisory Council (PAC) co-led and determined the focus of an analysis project using population-level administrative health data. We describe our engagement strategies herein. Approach The 20-member PAC was involved in each stage of the project, from research question formulation to knowledge translation planning over 18 months, consisting of 12 meetings with both large and smaller groups. Our approach to engagement applied the International Association for Public Participation’s Framework as the foundation for an ‘empowerment’ level of engagement and adapted approaches from the James Lind Alliance and the ‘Plan-Do-Study-Act’ cycle. Results The PAC chose to focus their analysis project on factors related to mental health and addiction service use. Four strategies were used and co-designed by members to foster engagement throughout: providing education and guidance, shared and guided brainstorming, building consensus, and responsiveness to feedback and evaluation. PAC members directed how and when these strategies were used, with challenges and lessons learned currently being co-developed into a publicly accessible report. Conclusions Our work demonstrates the importance and value of public-driven research outputs and the feasibility of integrating public members in the work of data stewards. Implications The insights and practical strategies generated from this project will be used to guide effective engagement of the public for future analysis projects and to improve trust and social license for other initiatives using population-level data.

Objective There is growing recognition of the importance of community data governance to build accountability of research institutions to communities. Our organization, a steward of health and administrative population-level data, has previously implemented community governance structures for Indigenous data. This scoping initiative explores development and implementation of an additional community governance structure for race-related data. Approach We conducted a scoping review of peer-reviewed and grey literature to identify existing practices of community data governance. We also conducted key informant interviews with thirteen racialized community stakeholders, who addressed open-ended questions on potential co-design processes as well as governance mandates, scopes, barriers, and facilitators. Results The scoping review identified eight community data governance examples. Two of these pertained to race-related data, while the remaining six pertained to other data that identified “community” geographically, by disease condition, life stage, and/or economic circumstance. Governance structures were diverse, ranging from one-time crowd-design of a data-sharing agreement to quarterly meetings of a governing board to review project-level data requests. Key informant interviews provided four themes to guide implementation in the context of our organization: exploring organizational readiness, considering who should be involved, defining the scope and mandate, and drafting an approach and process. Conclusion We are committed to implementing a community governance structure for race-related, population-level data. However, there are limited examples of similar structures in the existing literature. Implications The identified examples and the advice of community stakeholders will guide co-design of a preliminary structure, scope, and mandate for community governance of race-related, population-level data.

Background and purpose: Total hip arthroplasty (THA) can be performed through various surgical approaches, including direct anterior (DAA). DAA-THA may offer faster recovery but carries a higher risk of complications, which may be mitigated by surgeon volume and experience. We examined the association of surgeons’ annual surgical volume with major complications after DAA-THA in a population-based sample. Methods: A population-based retrospective cohort study was carried out on primary DAA-THA patients in Ontario between April 2016 and March 2021. We used restricted cubic splines to visually define the association between annual DAA surgeon volume and the risk of major surgical complications (fractures, dislocations, infections, and revisions) within 1 year of surgery. We further compared the complication rates amongst different DAA volume categories (< 30, 30–60, and > 60 cases/year). Results: The study encompassed 9,672 DAA-THA patients (52% female, median age 67 years). We showed a sharp decline in the probability of complications as the surgical volume of DAA-THA increased within the lower range of 0–30 cases/year; the probability slightly increased after the surgical volume exceeded 60 cases/year. The overall complication rates were 3.09%, 2.24%, and 2.18% for the surgical experience group of < 30 cases/year, 30–60 cases/year, and > 60 cases/year, respectively. Conclusion: There was an inverse relationship between surgical volume and complication rates in DAA-THA within the lower volume ranges. Maintaining a surgical volume of at least 30 DAA-THA cases/year can minimize complications, emphasizing the importance of surgical volume in this approach.

BackgroundIn 2020, the Ministry of Health (MoH) in Ontario, Canada, introduced a virtual urgent care (VUC) pilot program to provide alternative access to urgent care services and reduce the need for in-person emergency department (ED) visits for patients with low acuity health concerns. ObjectiveThis study aims to compare the 30-day costs associated with VUC and in-person ED encounters from an MoH perspective. MethodsUsing administrative data from Ontario (the most populous province of Canada), a population-based, matched cohort study of Ontarians who used VUC services from December 2020 to September 2021 was conducted. As it was expected that VUC and in-person ED users would be different, two cohorts of VUC users were defined: (1) those who were promptly referred to an ED by a VUC provider and subsequently presented to an ED within 72 hours (these patients were matched to in-person ED users with any discharge disposition) and (2) those seen by a VUC provider with no referral to an in-person ED (these patients were matched to patients who presented in-person to the ED and were discharged home by the ED physician). Bootstrap techniques were used to compare the 30-day mean costs of VUC (operational costs to set up the VUC program plus health care expenditures) versus in-person ED care (health care expenditures) from an MoH perspective. All costs are expressed in Canadian dollars (a currency exchange rate of CAD $1=US $0.76 is applicable). ResultsWe matched 2129 patients who presented to an ED within 72 hours of VUC referral and 14,179 patients seen by a VUC provider without a referral to an ED. Our matched populations represented 99% (2129/2150) of eligible VUC patients referred to the ED by their VUC provider and 98% (14,179/14,498) of eligible VUC patients not referred to the ED by their VUC provider. Compared to matched in-person ED patients, 30-day costs per patient were significantly higher for the cohort of VUC patients who presented to an ED within 72 hours of VUC referral ($2805 vs $2299; difference of $506, 95% CI $139-$885) and significantly lower for the VUC cohort of patients who did not require ED referral ($907 vs $1270; difference of $362, 95% CI 284-$446). Overall, the absolute 30-day costs associated with the 2 VUC cohorts were $18.9 million (ie, $6.0 million + $12.9 million) versus $22.9 million ($4.9 million + $18.0 million) for the 2 in-person ED cohorts. ConclusionsThis costing evaluation supports the use of VUC as most complaints were addressed without referral to ED. Future research should evaluate targeted applications of VUC (eg, VUC models led by nurse practitioners or physician assistants with support from ED physicians) to inform future resource allocation and policy decisions.

IntroductionPrevious research has suggested that how physicians are paid may affect the completeness of billing claims for estimating chronic disease. The purpose of this study is to estimate the completeness of physician billings for diabetes case ascertainment. MethodsWe used administrative data from eight Canadian provinces covering the period 1 April 2014 to 31 March 2016. The patient cohort was stratified into two mutually exclusive groups based on their physician remuneration type: fee-for-service (FFS), for those paid only on that basis; and non-fee-for-service (NFFS). Using diabetes prescription drug data as our reference data source, we evaluated whether completeness of disease case ascertainment varied with payment type. Diabetes incidence rates were then adjusted for completeness of ascertainment. ResultsThe cohort comprised 86 110 patients. Overall, equal proportions received their diabetes medications from FFS and NFFS physicians. Overall, physician payment method had little impact upon the percentage of missed diabetes cases (FFS, 14.8%; NFFS, 12.2%). However, the difference in missed cases between FFS and NFFS varied widely by province, ranging from −1.0% in Nova Scotia to 29.9% in Newfoundland and Labrador. The difference between the observed and adjusted disease incidence rates also varied by province, ranging from 22% in Prince Edward Island to 4% in Nova Scotia. ConclusionThe difference in the loss of cases by physician remuneration method varied across jurisdictions. This loss may contribute to an underestimation of disease incidence. The method we used could be applied to other chronic diseases for which drug therapy could serve as reference data source.

IntroductionDes recherches antérieures ont suggéré que le mode de rémunération des médecins peut avoir une influence sur l’exhaustivité des demandes de remboursement lors de l’estimation des maladies chroniques. Le but de cette étude est d’estimer l’exhaustivité des données sur la facturation des médecins dans l’optique de déterminer des cas de diabète. MéthodologieNous avons utilisé les données administratives de huit provinces canadiennes pour la période du 1er avril 2014 au 31 mars 2016. Nous avons divisé la cohorte de patients en deux groupes mutuellement exclusifs en fonction du mode de rémunération de leur médecin : médecins rémunérés à l’acte pour ceux payés uniquement de cette façon et médecins non rémunérés à l’acte pour les autres. À l’aide des données sur les ordonnances de médicaments hypoglycémiants (source de nos données de référence), nous avons évalué si les cas de maladie avaient été déterminés avec la même exactitude en fonction du mode de rémunération. Nous avons ensuite corrigé les taux d’incidence du diabète afin d’optimiser l’exhaustivité des cas déterminés. RésultatsLa cohorte comprenait 86 110 patients. Dans l’ensemble, des proportions égales de patients ont reçu leurs médicaments hypoglycémiants de la part de médecins rémunérés à l’acte et de médecins non rémunérés à l’acte. Globalement, le mode de rémunération des médecins a eu peu d’effet sur le pourcentage de cas de diabète omis (14,8 % chez les médecins rémunérés à l’acte contre 12,2 % chez les médecins non rémunérés à l’acte). Toutefois, la différence de cas omis entre les médecins rémunérés à l’acte et ceux non rémunérés à l’acte était très variable d’une province à l’autre, allant de -1,0 % en Nouvelle-Écosse à 29,9 % à Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador. La différence entre les taux observés d’incidence de la maladie et les taux corrigés était également variable d’une province à l’autre, allant de 22 % à l’Île-du-Prince-Édouard à 4 % en Nouvelle-Écosse. ConclusionLa différence entre le nombre de cas omis selon le mode de rémunération des médecins est variable d’une province à l’autre. Cette perte de données contribue probablement à une sous-estimation de l’incidence de la maladie. Il serait possible d’appliquer la méthode que nous avons utilisée à d’autres maladies chroniques pour lesquelles des données de traitement pharmacologique pourraient servir de données de référence.

Abstract Background Health care funding reforms are being used worldwide to improve system performance but may invoke unintended consequences. We assessed the effects of introducing a targeted hospital funding model, based on fixed price and volume, for hip fractures. We hypothesized the policy change was associated with reduction in wait times for hip fracture surgery, increase in wait times for non-hip fracture surgery, and increase in the incidence of after-hours hip fracture surgery. Methods This was a population-based, interrupted time series analysis of 49,097 surgeries for hip fractures, 10,474 for ankle fractures, 1,594 for tibial plateau fractures, and 40,898 for appendectomy at all hospitals in Ontario, Canada between April 2012 and March 2017. We used segmented regression analysis of interrupted monthly time series data to evaluate the impact of funding reform enacted April 1, 2014 on wait time for hip fracture repair (from hospital presentation to surgery) and after-hours provision of surgery (occurring between 1700 and 0700 h). To assess potential adverse consequences of the reform, we also evaluated two control procedures, ankle and tibial plateau fracture surgery. Appendectomy served as a non-orthopedic tracer for assessment of secular trends. Results The difference (95 % confidence interval) between the actual mean wait time and the predicted rate had the policy change not occurred was − 0.46 h (-3.94 h, 3.03 h) for hip fractures, 1.46 h (-3.58 h, 6.50 h) for ankle fractures, -3.22 h (-39.39 h, 32.95 h) for tibial plateau fractures, and 0.33 h (-0.57 h, 1.24 h) for appendectomy (Figure 1; Table 3). The difference (95 % confidence interval) between the actual and predicted percentage of surgeries performed after-hours − 0.90 % (-3.91 %, 2.11 %) for hip fractures, -3.54 % (-11.25 %, 4.16 %) for ankle fractures, 7.09 % (-7.97 %, 22.14 %) for tibial plateau fractures, and 1.07 % (-2.45 %, 4.59 %) for appendectomy. Conclusions We found no significant effects of a targeted hospital funding model based on fixed price and volume on wait times or the provision of after-hours surgery. Other approaches for improving hip fracture wait times may be worth pursuing instead of funding reform.

Objective To determine the contribution of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) to conditions and medical events. A secondary objective is to quantify this association before and after the introduction of biologic medications. Methods All data were collected as health administrative data in Ontario, Canada. Patients with RA (n = 136 678) matched 1:1 to a pool of possible controls without RA from 1995 to 2016. The study was a retrospective longitudinal observational administrative data‐based cohort study with cases (RA) and controls (two non‐RA comparator groups). The main exposure was new‐onset RA identified by a validated diagnosis algorithm. The secondary exposure was the calendar year, which provided a natural experiment to compare years in which biologics were unavailable (pre‐2001) to increasing utilization over time. The main outcomes were counts of 27 Johns Hopkins Expanded Diagnostic Cluster Comorbid Conditions. Outcomes were reported as counts and percentage differences between cases and matched controls. Results Patients experienced increases in conditions and medical events up to 5 years before RA disease incidence—4.9 conditions per patient‐year compared with 4.6 conditions per patient‐year in matched controls. Comorbidities increased to 8.7 conditions per patient‐year in the year of RA incidence but were lower in the years after diagnosis—6.9 conditions per patient‐year at 5 years postdiagnosis. Conclusion This study reframes the clinical manifestations of RA with detailed data on the marginal contribution of RA to conditions and medical events. These results show that a large portion of disease burden is due to the indirect effects of RA.

IntroductionThe recent publication of a national guideline and quality standards in Canada have provided clinicians with new, evidence-based recommendations on safe, appropriate opioid use. We sought to characterize how well opioid initiation practices aligned with these recommendations before and following their release.MethodsWe conducted a population-based study among people initiating opioids prior to the release of national guidelines (April 2015-March 2016; fiscal year [FY] 2015) and in the most recent year available (January-December 2019) in Ontario, Canada. We used linked administrative claims data to ascertain the apparent indication for opioid therapy, and characterized the initial daily dose (milligrams morphine or equivalent; MME) and prescription duration for each indication.ResultsIn FY2015, 653,885 individuals commenced opioids, compared to 571,652 in 2019. Over time, there were small overall reductions in the prevalence of initial daily doses exceeding 50MME (23.9% vs. 20.1%) and durations exceeding 7 days (17.4% vs. 14.8%); but the magnitude of the reductions varied widely by indication. The prevalence of high dose (>50MME) initial prescriptions reduced significantly across all indications, with the exception of dentist-prescribed opioids (13.6% vs. 12.1% above 50MME). In contrast, there was little change in initial durations exceeding 7 days across most indications, with the exception of some surgical indications (e.g. common excision; 9.3% vs. 6.2%) and among those in palliative care (35.2% vs. 29.2%).ConclusionDespite some modest reductions in initiation of high dose and long duration prescription opioids between 2015 and 2019, clinical practice is highly variable, with opioid prescribing practices influenced by clinical indication. These findings may help identify medical specialties well-suited to targeted interventions to promote safer opioid prescribing.

ObjectiveTo compare patterns in use of different antiemetics during pregnancy in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, between 2002 and 2014.MethodsWe constructed population-based cohorts of pregnant women using administrative healthcare data from five Canadian provinces (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, and Saskatchewan), the Clinical Practice Research Datalink from the United Kingdom, and the IBM MarketScan Research Databases from the United States. We included pregnancies ending in live births, stillbirth, spontaneous abortion, or induced abortion. We determined maternal use of antiemetics from pharmacy claims in Canada and the United States and from prescriptions in the United Kingdom.ResultsThe most common outcome of 3 848 734 included pregnancies (started 2002-2014) was live birth (66.7% of all pregnancies) followed by spontaneous abortion (20.2%). Use of antiemetics during pregnancy increased over time in all three countries. Canada had the highest prevalence of use of prescription antiemetics during pregnancy (17.7% of pregnancies overall, 13.2% of pregnancies in 2002, and 18.9% in 2014), followed by the United States (14.0% overall, 8.9% in 2007, and 18.1% in 2014), and the United Kingdom (5.0% overall, 4.2% in 2002, and 6.5% in 2014). Besides use of antiemetic drugs being considerably lower in the United Kingdom, the increase in its use over time was more modest. The most commonly used antiemetic was combination doxylamine/pyridoxine in Canada (95.2% of pregnancies treated with antiemetics), ondansetron in the United States (72.2%), and prochlorperazine in the United Kingdom (63.5%).ConclusionsIn this large cohort study, we observed an overall increase in antiemetic use during pregnancy, and patterns of use varied across jurisdictions. Continued monitoring of antiemetic use and further research are warranted to better understand the reasons for differences in use of these medications and to assess their benefit-risk profile in this population.

Introduction The recent publication of a national guideline and quality standards in Canada have provided clinicians with new, evidence-based recommendations on safe, appropriate opioid use. We sought to characterize how well opioid initiation practices aligned with these recommendations before and following their release. Methods We conducted a population-based study among people initiating opioids prior to the release of national guidelines (April 2015—March 2016; fiscal year [FY] 2015) and in the most recent year available (January—December 2019) in Ontario, Canada. We used linked administrative claims data to ascertain the apparent indication for opioid therapy, and characterized the initial daily dose (milligrams morphine or equivalent; MME) and prescription duration for each indication. Results In FY2015, 653,885 individuals commenced opioids, compared to 571,652 in 2019. Over time, there were small overall reductions in the prevalence of initial daily doses exceeding 50MME (23.9% vs. 20.1%) and durations exceeding 7 days (17.4% vs. 14.8%); but the magnitude of the reductions varied widely by indication. The prevalence of high dose (>50MME) initial prescriptions reduced significantly across all indications, with the exception of dentist-prescribed opioids (13.6% vs. 12.1% above 50MME). In contrast, there was little change in initial durations exceeding 7 days across most indications, with the exception of some surgical indications (e.g. common excision; 9.3% vs. 6.2%) and among those in palliative care (35.2% vs. 29.2%). Conclusion Despite some modest reductions in initiation of high dose and long duration prescription opioids between 2015 and 2019, clinical practice is highly variable, with opioid prescribing practices influenced by clinical indication. These findings may help identify medical specialties well-suited to targeted interventions to promote safer opioid prescribing.

Objective To compare patterns in use of different antiemetics during pregnancy in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, between 2002 and 2014. Methods We constructed population-based cohorts of pregnant women using administrative healthcare data from five Canadian provinces (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, and Saskatchewan), the Clinical Practice Research Datalink from the United Kingdom, and the IBM MarketScan Research Databases from the United States. We included pregnancies ending in live births, stillbirth, spontaneous abortion, or induced abortion. We determined maternal use of antiemetics from pharmacy claims in Canada and the United States and from prescriptions in the United Kingdom. Results The most common outcome of 3 848 734 included pregnancies (started 2002–2014) was live birth (66.7% of all pregnancies) followed by spontaneous abortion (20.2%). Use of antiemetics during pregnancy increased over time in all three countries. Canada had the highest prevalence of use of prescription antiemetics during pregnancy (17.7% of pregnancies overall, 13.2% of pregnancies in 2002, and 18.9% in 2014), followed by the United States (14.0% overall, 8.9% in 2007, and 18.1% in 2014), and the United Kingdom (5.0% overall, 4.2% in 2002, and 6.5% in 2014). Besides use of antiemetic drugs being considerably lower in the United Kingdom, the increase in its use over time was more modest. The most commonly used antiemetic was combination doxylamine/pyridoxine in Canada (95.2% of pregnancies treated with antiemetics), ondansetron in the United States (72.2%), and prochlorperazine in the United Kingdom (63.5%). Conclusions In this large cohort study, we observed an overall increase in antiemetic use during pregnancy, and patterns of use varied across jurisdictions. Continued monitoring of antiemetic use and further research are warranted to better understand the reasons for differences in use of these medications and to assess their benefit-risk profile in this population.

Background Anecdotally there are reports of newly diagnosed SARS-CoV-2 infection shortly after vaccination. This has led some to speculate that vaccination itself might inadvertently increase the short-term risk of COVID potentially due to airborne spread at mass vaccination clinics or relaxation of precautions following vaccination. We explored whether receipt of vaccination was associated with a short-term increase in the risk of being diagnosed with COVID-19 and if differences exist between vaccination settings. Methods We conducted a cohort study in Ontario, Canada to compare the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection within 21 days of receiving a first vaccination, according to the setting in which vaccines were administered between March 1, 2021 and May 6, 2021. We used linked population-wide vaccination, laboratory testing, and health administrative databases. We created a 1:1 matched comparison group of unexposed individuals. We reported the overall risk of infection calculated at 3, 7, 10, 14, 18, and 21 days. This was completed overall and by setting of vaccine receipt. Results We identified 4,798,430 Ontario residents who received their first dose of a COVID-19 vaccine. In the primary analysis, the rate of SARS-CoV-2 infection was significantly lower among vaccine recipients vs non-recipients at all the post-vaccination time points. Analysis stratified by vaccination setting found that mass vaccination clinics, pharmacies, and physician offices were consistent with the main findings. Individuals who received their first vaccine dose in congregate residential settings had a higher rate of SARS-CoV-2 infection at 7 days (HR 1.35, 95% CI 1.00–1.83) and 10 days (HR 1.49, 95% CI 1.03–2.15). Conclusion In this population-based cohort study, we found that there was no increased risk of SARS-CoV2 infection after vaccination suggesting no broad transmission of disease at time of vaccination. Some evidence of increased risk among those vaccinated in congregate settings, highlighting the need to consider opportunities for supporting safe vaccine administration in these settings. Given ongoing and future immunization programs, the results support the need for continued vigilance during any mass vaccination processes and education regarding the delayed nature of protection following vaccination.

BackgroundAnecdotally there are reports of newly diagnosed SARS-CoV-2 infection shortly after vaccination. This has led some to speculate that vaccination itself might inadvertently increase the short-term risk of COVID potentially due to airborne spread at mass vaccination clinics or relaxation of precautions following vaccination. We explored whether receipt of vaccination was associated with a short-term increase in the risk of being diagnosed with COVID-19 and if differences exist between vaccination settings.MethodsWe conducted a cohort study in Ontario, Canada to compare the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection within 21 days of receiving a first vaccination, according to the setting in which vaccines were administered between March 1, 2021 and May 6, 2021. We used linked population-wide vaccination, laboratory testing, and health administrative databases. We created a 1:1 matched comparison group of unexposed individuals. We reported the overall risk of infection calculated at 3, 7, 10, 14, 18, and 21 days. This was completed overall and by setting of vaccine receipt.ResultsWe identified 4,798,430 Ontario residents who received their first dose of a COVID-19 vaccine. In the primary analysis, the rate of SARS-CoV-2 infection was significantly lower among vaccine recipients vs non-recipients at all the post-vaccination time points. Analysis stratified by vaccination setting found that mass vaccination clinics, pharmacies, and physician offices were consistent with the main findings. Individuals who received their first vaccine dose in congregate residential settings had a higher rate of SARS-CoV-2 infection at 7 days (HR 1.35, 95% CI 1.00-1.83) and 10 days (HR 1.49, 95% CI 1.03-2.15).ConclusionIn this population-based cohort study, we found that there was no increased risk of SARS-CoV2 infection after vaccination suggesting no broad transmission of disease at time of vaccination. Some evidence of increased risk among those vaccinated in congregate settings, highlighting the need to consider opportunities for supporting safe vaccine administration in these settings. Given ongoing and future immunization programs, the results support the need for continued vigilance during any mass vaccination processes and education regarding the delayed nature of protection following vaccination.

Introduction Health care systems have faced unprecedented challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Access to timely population-based data has been vital to informing public health policy and practice. Methods We describe how ICES, an independent not-for-profit research and analytic institute in Ontario, Canada, pivoted existing research infrastructure and engaged health system stakeholders to provide near real-time population-based data and analytics to support Ontario's COVID-19 pandemic response. Results Since April 2020, ICES provided the Ontario COVID-19 Provincial Command Table and public health partners with regular and ad hoc reports on SARS-CoV-2 testing and COVID-19 vaccine coverage. These reports: 1) helped identify congregate care/shared living settings that needed testing and prevention efforts early in the pandemic; 2) provided early indications of inequities in testing and infection in marginalized neighbourhoods, including areas with higher proportions of immigrants and visible minorities; 3) identified areas with high test positivity, which helped Public Health Units target and evaluate prevention efforts; and 4) contributed to altering the province's COVID-19 vaccine roll-out strategy to target high-risk neighbourhoods and helping Public Health Units and community organizations plan local vaccination programs. In addition, ICES is a key component of the Ontario Health Data Platform, which provides scientists with data access to conduct COVID-19 research and analyses. Discussion and Conclusion ICES was well-positioned to provide rapid analyses for decision-makers to respond to the evolving public health emergency, and continues to contribute to Ontario's pandemic response by providing timely, relevant reports to health system stakeholders and facilitating data access for externally-funded COVID-19 research.

Abstract Background The Cardiovascular Health Awareness Program (CHAP) uses volunteers to provide cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes screening in a community setting, referrals to primary care providers, and locally available programs targeting lifestyle modification. CHAP has been adapted to target older adults residing in social housing, a vulnerable segment of the population. Older adults living in social housing report poorer health status and have a higher burden of a multitude of chronic illnesses, such as CVD and diabetes. The study objective is to evaluate whether there is a reduction in unplanned CVD-related Emergency Department (ED) visits and hospital admissions among residents of social seniors’ housing buildings receiving the CHAP program for 1 year compared to residents in matched buildings not receiving the program. Methods/design This is a pragmatic, cluster randomized controlled trial in community-based social (subsidized) housing buildings in Ontario and Quebec. All residents of 14 matched pairs (intervention/control) of apartment buildings will be included. Buildings with 50–200 apartment units with the majority of residents aged 55+ and a unique postal code are included. All individuals residing within the buildings at the start of the intervention period are included (intention to treat, open cohort). The intervention instrument consists of CHAP screens for high blood pressure using automated blood pressure monitors and for diabetes using the Canadian Diabetes Risk (CANRISK) assessment tool. Monthly drop-in sessions for screening/monitoring are held within a common area of the building. Group health education sessions are also held monthly. Reports are sent to family doctors, and attendees are encouraged to visit their family doctor. The primary outcome measure is monthly CVD-related ED visits and hospitalizations over a 1-year period post randomization. Secondary outcomes are all ED visits, hospitalizations, quality of life, cost-effectiveness, and participant experience. Discussion It is anticipated that CVD-related ED visits and hospitalizations will decrease in the intervention buildings. Using the volunteer-led CHAP program, there is significant opportunity to improve the health of older adults in social housing. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov,NCT03549845. Registered on 15 May 2018. Updated on 21 May 2019.

Objectives This study aimed to identify a threshold in annual surgeon volume associated with increased risk of revision (for any cause) and deep infection requiring surgery following primary elective total knee arthroplasty (TKA).Design A propensity score matched cohort study.Setting Ontario, Canada.Participants 169 713 persons who received a primary TKA between 2002 and 2016, with 3-year postoperative follow-up.Main outcome measures Revision arthroplasty (for any cause), and the occurrence of deep surgical infection requiring surgery.Results Based on restricted cubic spline analysis, the threshold for increased probability of revision and deep infection requiring surgery was

BackgroundStigma and high-care needs can present barriers to the provision of high-quality primary care for people with opioid use disorder (OUD) and those prescribed opioids for chronic pain. We explored the likelihood of securing a new primary care provider (PCP) among people with varying histories of opioid use who had recently lost access to their PCP.Methods and findingsWe conducted a retrospective cohort study using linked administrative data among residents of Ontario, Canada whose enrolment with a physician practicing in a primary care enrolment model (PEM) was terminated between January 2016 and December 2017. We assigned individuals to 3 groups based upon their opioid use on the date enrolment ended: long-term opioid pain therapy (OPT), opioid agonist therapy (OAT), or no opioid. We fit multivariable models assessing the primary outcome of primary care reattachment within 1 year, adjusting for demographic characteristics, clinical comorbidities, and health services utilization. Secondary outcomes included rates of emergency department (ED) visits and opioid toxicity events. Among 154,970 Ontarians who lost their PCP, 1,727 (1.1%) were OAT recipients, 3,644 (2.4%) were receiving long-term OPT, and 149,599 (96.5%) had no recent prescription opioid exposure. In general, OAT recipients were younger (median age 36) than those receiving long-term OPT (59 years) and those with no recent prescription opioid exposure (44 years). In all exposure groups, the majority of individuals had their enrolment terminated by their physician (range 78.1% to 88.8%). In the primary analysis, as compared to those not receiving opioids, OAT recipients were significantly less likely to find a PCP within 1 year (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 0.55, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.50 to 0.61, p < 0.0001). We observed no significant difference between long-term OPT and opioid unexposed individuals (aHR 0.96; 95% CI 0.92 to 1.01, p = 0.12). In our secondary analysis comparing the period of PCP loss to the year prior, we found that rates of ED visits were elevated among people not receiving opioids (adjusted rate ratio (aRR) 1.20, 95% CI 1.18 to 1.22, p < 0.0001) and people receiving long-term OPT (aRR 1.37, 95% CI 1.28 to 1.48, p < 0.0001). We found no such increase among OAT recipients, and no significant increase in opioid toxicity events in the period following provider loss for any exposure group. The main limitation of our findings relates to their generalizability outside of PEMs and in jurisdictions with different financial incentives incorporated into primary care provision.ConclusionsIn this study, we observed gaps in access to primary care among people who receive prescription opioids, particularly among OAT recipients. Ongoing efforts are needed to address the stigma, discrimination, and financial disincentives that may introduce barriers to the healthcare system, and to facilitate access to high-quality, consistent primary care services for chronic pain patients and those with OUD.

Abstract Background Good communication is central to a high-quality consultation process. We assessed the quality of referral information from primary care physicians (PCPs) to rheumatologists and the quality and timeliness of consultation letters from rheumatologists back to PCPs. Methods We sampled referral letters between 2000 and 2013 from 168 PCPs and performed a retrospective chart review of 2430 patients referred to 146 rheumatologists. We assessed the completeness and timeliness of referral and consultation letters. Results Osteoarthritis (n = 787, 32%) and systemic inflammatory rheumatic diseases (n = 745, 31%) comprised the top reasons for referral. Only 55% of referral letters summarized the patients’ medical history. Referral letters provided some details of diagnostic tests (51% labs, 34% imaging) but there was underreporting of this information on referral letters. Almost all referral letters (92%) contained details of at least one patient symptom, with the most common complaint being joint pain (54%). Only half of all referral letters provided symptom duration. The PCP only stressed an urgent consultation among 211 patients (9%). Overall, 69% of consultation letters were returned to PCPs within 30 days of consultation visit. Conclusion We found that basic items necessary for appropriate triage, including a description of symptoms or other relevant history and results of investigations were often lacking in referral letters. The delay of receipt of consultation letters may further represent a lost opportunity for coordination and continuity of care, and may affect the quality of care patients receive.

Introduction. Le Système canadien de surveillance des maladies chroniques (SCSMC) de l’Agence de la santé publique du Canada (ASPC) produit des estimations de la prévalence et de l’incidence des maladies chroniques au sein de la population à l’aide de données administratives sur la santé. Notre projet visait à évaluer les tendances des taux d’incidence au fil du temps, car elles jouent un rôle essentiel dans la compréhension de l’évolution des risques pour la population et dans l’orientation des politiques. Méthodologie. Nous avons obtenu les cas incidents et diagnostiqués d’asthme, de maladie pulmonaire obstructive chronique (MPOC), de diabète, d’hypertension, de cardiopathie ischémique et d’accident vasculaire cérébral (AVC) auprès de l’infobase en ligne du SCSMC pour les années 1999 à 2012. Nous avons analysé les tendances dans les estimations de l’incidence à l’échelle nationale et régionale à l’aide d’un modèle de régression binomiale négative utilisant l’année comme prédicteur linéaire. Nous avons ensuite utilisé des modèles utilisant l’année comme spline cubique restreinte pour vérifier les écarts de linéarité au moyen du test du rapport de vraisemblance. L’âge et le sexe ont été intégrés comme covariables dans tous les modèles. Résultats. Dans les modèles où l’année a été utilisée comme prédicteur linéaire, les taux d’incidence nationaux diminuaient dans le temps pour toutes les maladies sauf le diabète et les taux d’incidence régionaux diminuaient également pour la plupart des maladies et dans la plupart des régions. Toutefois, les tests du rapport de vraisemblance ont révélé des écarts statistiquement significatifs par rapport à l’effet linéaire de l’année pour de nombreuses maladies et dans de nombreuses régions, en particulier pour l’hypertension. Conclusion. Les estimations de l’incidence des maladies chroniques fondées sur les données du SCSMC font état d’une diminution dans le temps, mais à un taux non constant. D’autres recherches sont nécessaires pour déterminer si cette diminution est associée à des changements dans l’état de santé de la population, dans la qualité des données ou dans les pratiques médicales. De la même manière, les caractéristiques de la population susceptibles d’avoir une influence sur l’évolution des tendances de l’incidence requièrent un examen approfondi.

Introduction: The Public Health Agency of Canada’s Canadian Chronic Disease Surveillance System (CCDSS) produces population-based estimates of chronic disease prevalence and incidence using administrative health data. Our aim was to assess trends in incidence rates over time, trends are essential to understand changes in population risk and to inform policy development. Methods: Incident cases of diagnosed asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), diabetes, hypertension, ischemic heart disease (IHD), and stroke were obtained from the CCDSS online infobase for 1999 to 2012. Trends in national and regional incidence estimates were tested using a negative binomial regression model with year as a linear predictor. Subsequently, models with year as a restricted cubic spline were used to test for departures from linearity using the likelihood ratio test. Age and sex were covariates in all models. Results: Based on the models with year as a linear predictor, national incidence rates were estimated to have decreased over time for all diseases, except diabetes; regional incidence rates for most diseases and regions were also estimated to have decreased. However, likelihood ratio tests revealed statistically significant departures from a linear year effect for many diseases and regions, particularly for hypertension. Conclusion: Chronic disease incidence estimates based on CCDSS data are decreasing over time, but not at a constant rate. Further investigations are needed to assess if this decrease is associated with changes in health status, data quality, or physician practices. As well, population characteristics that may influence changing incidence trends also require exploration.

Quantifying the contribution of rheumatoid arthritis to the acquisition of subsequent health care costs is an emerging focus of the rheumatologic community and payers of health care. Our objective was to determine the healthcare costs before and after diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) from the public payer's perspective. The study design was a longitudinal observational administrative data-based cohort with RA cases from Ontario Canada (n = 104,933) and two control groups, matched 1:1 on year of cohort entry from 2001 to 2016. The first control group was matched on age, sex and calendar year of cohort entry (diagnosis year for those with RA); the second group added medical history to the match before RA diagnosis year. The main exposure was new onset RA. The secondary exposure was calendar year of RA diagnosis to compare attributable costs over the study observation window. Main outcomes were health care costs in 2015 Canadian dollars, overall and by cost category. We used attribution methods to classify costs into those associated with RA, those associated with comorbidities, and age/sex-related underlying costs. Health care costs associated with RA increased up to the year of diagnosis, where they reached $8,591: $4,142 in RA associated costs; $1,242 in RA comorbidity associated costs; and $3,207 in underlying costs. In the eighth-year post diagnosis, the RA costs declined to $2,567 while the RA comorbidity associated costs remained relatively constant at $1,142, and the underlying age/sex related cost increased to $4,426. RA patients had lower costs when diagnosed in later calendar years. Our results suggest a large proportion of disease related health care costs are a result of costs associated with RA comorbidities, which may appear many years before diagnosis.

BackgroundThe Government of Ontario, Canada, announced hospital funding reforms in 2011, including Quality-based Procedures (QBPs) involving pre-set funds for managing patients with specific diagnoses/procedures. A key goal was to improve quality of care across the jurisdiction.MethodsInterrupted time series evaluated the policy change, focusing on four QBPs (congestive heart failure, hip fracture surgery, pneumonia, prostate cancer surgery), on patients hospitalized 2010-2017. Outcomes included return to hospital or death within 30 days, acute length of stay (LOS), volume of admissions, and patient characteristics.ResultsAt 2 years post-QBPs, the percentage of hip fracture patients who returned to hospital or died was 3.13% higher in absolute terms (95% CI: 0.37% to 5.89%) than if QBPs had not been introduced. There were no other statistically significant changes for return to hospital or death. For LOS, the only statistically significant change was an increase for prostate cancer surgery of 0.33 days (95% CI: 0.07 to 0.59). Volume increased for congestive heart failure admissions by 80 patients (95% CI: 2 to 159) and decreased for hip fracture surgery by 138 patients (95% CI: -183 to -93) but did not change for pneumonia or prostate cancer surgery. The percentage of patients who lived in the lowest neighborhood income quintile increased slightly for those diagnosed with congestive heart failure (1.89%; 95% CI: 0.51% to 3.27%) and decreased for those who underwent prostate cancer surgery (-2.08%; 95% CI: -3.74% to -0.43%).InterpretationThis policy initiative involving a change to hospital funding for certain conditions was not associated with substantial, jurisdictional-level changes in access or quality.

Abstract Background Senior high cost health care users (HCU) are a priority for many governments. Little research has addressed regional variation of HCU incidence and outcomes, especially among incident HCU. This study describes the regional variation in healthcare costs and mortality across Ontario’s health planning districts [Local Health Integration Networks (LHIN)] among senior incident HCU and non-HCU and explores the relationship between healthcare spending and mortality. Methods We conducted a retrospective population-based matched cohort study of incident senior HCU defined as Ontarians aged ≥66 years in the top 5% most costly healthcare users in fiscal year (FY) 2013. We matched HCU to non-HCU (1:3) based on age, sex and LHIN. Primary outcomes were LHIN-based variation in costs (total and 12 cost components) and mortality during FY2013 as measured by variance estimates derived from multi-level models. Outcomes were risk-adjusted for age, sex, ADGs, and low-income status. In a cost-mortality analysis by LHIN, risk-adjusted random effects for total costs and mortality were graphically presented together in a cost-mortality plane to identify low and high performers. Results We studied 175,847 incident HCU and 527,541 matched non-HCU. On average, 94 out of 1000 seniors per LHIN were HCU (CV = 4.6%). The mean total costs for HCU in FY2013 were 12 times higher that of non-HCU ($29,779 vs. $2472 respectively), whereas all-cause mortality was 13.6 times greater (103.9 vs. 7.5 per 1000 seniors). Regional variation in costs and mortality was lower in senior HCU compared with non-HCU. We identified greater variability in accessing the healthcare system, but, once the patient entered the system, variation in costs was low. The traditional drivers of costs and mortality that we adjusted for played little role in driving the observed variation in HCUs’ outcomes. We identified LHINs that had high mortality rates despite elevated healthcare expenditures and those that achieved lower mortality at lower costs. Some LHINs achieved low mortality at excessively high costs. Conclusions Risk-adjusted allocation of healthcare resources to seniors in Ontario is overall similar across health districts, more so for HCU than non-HCU. Identified important variation in the cost-mortality relationship across LHINs needs to be further explored.

Chronic diseases have a major impact on populations and healthcare systems worldwide. Administrative health data are an ideal resource for chronic disease surveillance because they are population-based and routinely collected. For multi-jurisdictional surveillance, a distributed model is advantageous because it does not require individual-level data to be shared across jurisdictional boundaries. Our objective is to describe the process, structure, benefits, and challenges of a distributed model for chronic disease surveillance across all Canadian provinces and territories (P/Ts) using linked administrative data. The Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) established the Canadian Chronic Disease Surveillance System (CCDSS) in 2009 to facilitate standardized, national estimates of chronic disease prevalence, incidence, and outcomes. The CCDSS primarily relies on linked health insurance registration files, physician billing claims, and hospital discharge abstracts. Standardized case definitions and common analytic protocols are applied to the data for each P/T; aggregate data are shared with PHAC and summarized for reports and open access data initiatives. Advantages of this distributed model include: it uses the rich data resources available in all P/Ts; it supports chronic disease surveillance capacity building in all P/Ts; and changes in surveillance methodology can be easily developed by PHAC and implemented by the P/Ts. However, there are challenges: heterogeneity in administrative databases across jurisdictions and changes in data quality over time threaten the production of standardized disease estimates; a limited set of databases are common to all P/Ts, which hinders potential CCDSS expansion; and there is a need to balance comprehensive reporting with P/T disclosure requirements to protect privacy. The CCDSS distributed model for chronic disease surveillance has been successfully implemented and sustained by PHAC and its P/T partners. Many lessons have been learned about national surveillance involving jurisdictions that are heterogeneous with respect to healthcare databases, expertise and analytical capacity, population characteristics, and priorities.

Prescription opioid use is highly associated with risk of opioid-related death, with 1 of every 550 chronic opioid users dying within approximately 2.5 years of their first opioid prescription. Although gabapentin is widely perceived as safe, drug-induced respiratory depression has been described when gabapentin is used alone or in combination with other medications. Because gabapentin and opioids are both commonly prescribed for pain, the likelihood of co-prescription is high. However, no published studies have examined whether concomitant gabapentin therapy is associated with an increased risk of accidental opioid-related death in patients receiving opioids. The objective of this study was to investigate whether co-prescription of opioids and gabapentin is associated with an increased risk of accidental opioid-related mortality.We conducted a population-based nested case-control study among opioid users who were residents of Ontario, Canada, between August 1, 1997, and December 31, 2013, using administrative databases. Cases, defined as opioid users who died of an opioid-related cause, were matched with up to 4 controls who also used opioids on age, sex, year of index date, history of chronic kidney disease, and a disease risk index. After matching, we included 1,256 cases and 4,619 controls. The primary exposure was concomitant gabapentin use in the 120 days preceding the index date. A secondary analysis characterized gabapentin dose as low (

To examine the impact of national clinical practice guidelines and provincial drug policy interventions on prevalence of high-dose opioid prescribing and rates of hospitalization for opioid toxicity.Interventional time-series analysis.Ontario, Canada, from 2003 to 2014.Ontario Drug Benefit (ODB) beneficiaries aged 15 to 64 years from 2003 to 2014.Publication of Canadian clinical practice guidelines for use of opioids in chronic non-cancer pain (May 2010) and implementation of Ontario's Narcotics Safety and Awareness Act (NSAA; November 2011).Three outcomes were explored: the rate of opioid use among ODB beneficiaries, the prevalence of opioid prescriptions exceeding 200 mg and 400 mg morphine equivalents per day, and rates of opioid-related emergency department visits and hospital admissions.Over the 12 year study period, the rate of opioid use declined 15.2%, from 2764 to 2342 users per 10,000 ODB eligible persons. The rate of opioid use was significantly impacted by the Canadian clinical practice guidelines (p-value = .03) which led to a decline in use, but no impact was observed by the enactment of the NSAA (p-value = .43). Among opioid users, the prevalence of high-dose prescribing doubled (from 4.2% to 8.7%) over the study period. By 2014, 40.9% of recipients of long-acting opioids exceeded daily doses of 200 mg morphine or equivalent, including 55.8% of long-acting oxycodone users and 76.3% of transdermal fentanyl users. Moreover, in the last period, 18.7% of long-acting opioid users exceeded daily doses of 400 mg morphine or equivalent. Rates of opioid-related emergency department visits and hospital admissions increased 55.0% over the study period from 9.0 to 14.0 per 10,000 ODB beneficiaries from 2003 to 2013. This rate was not significantly impacted by the Canadian clinical practice guidelines (p-value = .68) or enactment of the NSAA (p-value = .59).Although the Canadian clinical practice guidelines for use of opioids in chronic non-cancer pain led to a decline in opioid prescribing rates among ODB beneficiaries these guidelines and subsequent Ontario legislation did not result in a significant change in rates of opioid-related hospitalizations. Given the prevalence of high dose opioid prescribing in this population, this suggests that improved strategies and programs for the safe prescribing of long-acting opioids are needed.

PURPOSE: To examine the association between the provision of professional pharmacy services (PPS) and patient complexity as determined by the number of distinct medications dispensed in Ontario. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study among all individuals dispensed one or more medications under the Ontario Public Drug Program (OPDP) between April 1st, 2012 and March 31st, 2013. We compared characteristics of patients receiving ­1 or more PPS to those receiving no PPS. To assess the relationship between patient complexity (as measured by the number of chronic medications dispensed) and receipt of PPS, we reported the number and proportion of patients eligible for Ontario Drug Benefits (ODB) who received a PPS within each patient complexity group, and compared these proportions using the Cochran-Armitage test. RESULTS: Over the 1-year study period, 27.1% (N = 799,674 of 2,946,183) of ODB beneficiaries received at least one professional pharmacy service. Among these services, more than two-thirds of the patients received a MedsCheck service (N=511,490; 64.0%). Overall, individuals who received a PPS tended to be older, more likely to reside in a long-term care (LTC) facility, have multiple comorbidities, and were more likely to have been prescribed 9 or more medications in the past year. As patient complexity increased, the proportion of ODB beneficiaries who received PPS also increased; 3.0% of individuals prescribed between 1 and 2 medications in the past year received PPS, while 53.6% of those treated with 13 or more medications received PPS (p

BACKGROUND: Some evidence suggests that proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are an under-appreciated risk factor for hypomagnesemia. Whether hospitalization with hypomagnesemia is associated with use of PPIs is unknown. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a population-based case-control study of multiple health care databases in Ontario, Canada, from April 2002 to March 2012. Patients who were enrolled as cases were Ontarians aged 66 years or older hospitalized with hypomagnesemia. For each individual enrolled as a case, we identified up to four individuals as controls matched on age, sex, kidney disease, and use of various diuretic classes. Exposure to PPIs was categorized according to the most proximate prescription prior to the index date as current (within 90 days), recent (within 91 to 180 days), or remote (within 181 to 365 days). We used conditional logistic regression to estimate the odds ratio for the association of outpatient PPI use and hospitalization with hypomagnesemia. To test the specificity of our findings we examined use of histamine H2 receptor antagonists, drugs with no causal link to hypomagnesemia. We studied 366 patients hospitalized with hypomagnesemia and 1,464 matched controls. Current PPI use was associated with a 43% increased risk of hypomagnesemia (adjusted odds ratio, 1.43; 95% CI 1.06-1.93). In a stratified analysis, the risk was particularly increased among patients receiving diuretics, (adjusted odds ratio, 1.73; 95% CI 1.11-2.70) and not significant among patients not receiving diuretics (adjusted odds ratio, 1.25; 95% CI 0.81-1.91). We estimate that one excess hospitalization with hypomagnesemia will occur among 76,591 outpatients treated with a PPI for 90 days. Hospitalization with hypomagnesemia was not associated with the use of histamine H2 receptor antagonists (adjusted odds ratio 1.06; 95% CI 0.54-2.06). Limitations of this study include a lack of access to serum magnesium levels, uncertainty regarding diagnostic coding of hypomagnesemia, and generalizability of our findings to younger patients. CONCLUSIONS: PPIs are associated with a small increased risk of hospitalization with hypomagnesemia among patients also receiving diuretics. Physicians should be aware of this association, particularly for patients with hypomagnesemia. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.

Recent evidence suggests that proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) might be linked with adverse cardiac events, but a causal relationship is unproven.We applied the self-matched case series method to two studies using population-based health care data from Ontario, Canada between 1996 and 2008. The first included subjects aged 66 years or older hospitalized for acute myocardial infarction within 12 weeks following initiation of PPI, while the second included subjects hospitalized for heart failure. In both studies we designated the primary risk interval as the initial 4 weeks of therapy and the control interval as the final 4 weeks. To test the specificity of our findings we examined use of histamine H2 receptor antagonists and benzodiazepines, drugs with no plausible causal link to adverse cardiac events.During the 13-year study period, we identified 5550 hospital admissions for acute myocardial infarction and 6003 admissions for heart failure within 12 weeks of commencing PPI therapy. In the main analyses, we found that initiation of a PPI was associated with a higher risk of acute myocardial infarction (odds ratio 1.8; 95% confidence interval 1.7 to 1.9) and heart failure (odds ratio 1.8; 95% confidence interval 1.7 to 1.9). However, secondary analyses revealed similar risk estimates histamine H2 receptor antagonists and benzodiazepines, drugs with no known or suspected association with adverse cardiac events.PPIs are associated with a short-term risk of adverse cardiac events, but similar associations are seen with other drugs exhibiting no known cardiac toxicity. Collectively these observations suggest that the association between PPIs and adverse cardiac events does not represent reflect cause-and-effect.