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The Philippines' vulnerability to climate change necessitates the adoption of strategies to strengthen the most vulnerable sectors and diminish severe climate change impacts in the future. This study assessed the implications of recent findings of climate change science on the country's Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) 10 priority programs through a landscape and ecosystem-based approach. The assessment was done by defining the impacts of climate change on natural ecosystems through a comprehensive review of relevant literature at the global to national scale, as well as the development of a framework for assessing the climate responsiveness of programs. Using a set of 12 criteria for climate responsiveness and a four-point rating scale (0/none to 3/high), the programs were assessed through a literature and document review, conduct of a series of workshops, and interviews and self-rating surveys with key actors, such as officers of the divisions and attached agencies of DENR. Results of the assessment showed that most of DENR's programs were found to have low ratings in terms of flexibility, a longterm scope of impacts, the ability to address interconnected risks and vulnerabilities, the ability to stimulate migration to green development pathways, and the promotion of incremental and transformational adaptation. To improve the ratings, it is recommended that decision support systems be developed, and plans and programs be integrated and harmonized through multiagency/ multi-stakeholder collaboration and a robust system for developing climate-responsive policies -- including the National Land Use Act, Sustainable Forest Management, Payment for Environmental Services, and the Carbon Offset Law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many areas in the country are rich in biodiversity but are not assessed as they are not part of the identified protected areas of the country. One of which is the Kalahan Forest Reserve (KFR) managed by the Ikalahans, a cultural minority group that practices sustainable agroforestry systems. The study used a modified quadrat sampling method (QSM) where a total of eight 1-km transect with 20-m width were established to assess the biodiversity of the area. The sampling was undertaken in three layers: overstorey (10 plots each measuring 10 m x 10 m, spaced 100 m away from each other in each 1-km transect), intermediate (3 m x 3 m inside the 10 m x 10 m plot), and understorey (1 m x 1 m inside the 3 m x 3 m plot). Results of the study show that Benguet pine (Pinus insularis Endl) and brown oak (Quercus semecarpifolia Sm.) have high importance values of 49.07 and 45.80, respectively. Moreover, the results of the study indicate that KFR has very high biological diversity as manifested by the value of Shannon-Weiner (3.50) and the Shannon diversity index scale of Fernando. In terms of the presence of endemic species, KFR is home to 50 endemic species or has 45% endemism. Based on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List and DAO 2017-11 KFR has three threatened, two endangered, and three vulnerable species. Considering these results, KFR is worthy to be protected to conserve and enhance its biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Byline: Rodel D. Lasco, Juan M. Pulhin Community-based forest management (CBFM) is a major strategy in managing forest lands in the Philippines. Forest and land management activities implemented in CBFM project sites include management of tropical forests (enrichment planting, timber stand improvement or TSI and limited harvesting), rehabilitation of degraded lands (reforestation, assisted natural regeneration (ANR)) and agroforestry. The environmental effects of CBFM and its technologies are largely positive. CBFM has led to the conservation of natural forests and the associated biodiversity. The planting of trees in farms and landscapes has led to soil and water conservation, carbon sequestration and biomass production.

Graphical abstract Highlights • Changes in the landscape pattern of the La Mesa Watershed (LMW) were quantified. • From 1988 to 2002, the LMW had a net forest cover loss of 259 ha. • From 2002 to 2016, the LMW had a net forest cover gain of 557 ha. • Forest cover loss (deforestation) resulted in a fragmented landscape. • Forest cover gain (rehabilitation and restoration) improved landscape connectivity. Abstract The La Mesa Watershed (LMW) is considered as the 'lungs' and the last ecological frontier of the Philippines' National Capital Region, Metro Manila. It is among the many watersheds in the country that suffered from severe deforestation in the past. Nevertheless, over the past few decades, reforestation programs for the LMW have also been initiated. The spatiotemporal monitoring of landscape pattern (composition and configuration) is needed to inform policy and support forward-looking management planning toward landscape sustainability. However, the changes in the landscape pattern of the LMW, including the extent of forest cover loss and gain over the past decades, have not been quantified; hence, this study. We used remote sensing data (Landsat) to classify the land use/land cover of the LMW in 1988, 2002 and 2016. We subsequently used spatial metrics to quantify the changes in the landscape pattern of the watershed. We found that between 1988 and 2002, a period that largely preceded the start of the LMW's major rehabilitation (c. 1999), the watershed had a net forest cover loss of 259 ha. From 2002 to 2016, it had a net forest cover gain of 557 ha. The detected increase in forest cover was supported by the percent tree cover change analysis results based on MODIS data. The deforestation of the LMW resulted in landscape fragmentation as indicated by the decrease in the area of forest and mean forest patch size, and the increase in forest patch density, etc. Forest restoration activities have helped improve the watershed's landscape connectivity as signified by the increase in the area of forest and mean forest patch size, and the decrease in forest patch density, etc. The results also revealed that rapid urbanization has been a major factor driving landscape changes around the LMW, and this requires proactive, forward-looking management planning. Overall, the LMW's case presents some valuable learning experience and insights regarding public-private partnerships toward watershed and forest-related rehabilitation initiatives. On a national scale, the Philippine government has embarked on a massive national greening program. The findings of this study suggest that such efforts could lead to the enhancement of denuded forest areas, if done properly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Planting trees to sequester carbon dioxide mitigates climate change, but it has been contended that insufficient attention is given to the quality of the germplasm established in afforestation/reforestation programmes, limiting sequestration opportunities. To understand current practices in the choice, sourcing and delivery of tree planting material, we undertook a desk review of 38 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) afforestation/reforestation project design documents (PDDs) from Africa, Asia and Latin America. Detailed examination indicated most PDDs identified for planting species that could be locally appropriate, with a large number of indigenous taxa as well as exotics chosen. The number of indigenous species in some designs appeared however to be unrealistic in terms of ensuring germplasm access. Reference to an online germplasm supplier database and comparison with the available literature supported the hypothesis that many PDDs pay insufficient attention to the choice, sourcing and delivery of planting material, which is likely to impact on the quality of the trees planted. Moving forward, it is clear that greater attention to available sources, more local testing of germplasm and working in closer relationship with local communities in nursery development are among the interventions required to support tree-based sequestration initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT An analysis of tropical cyclone ( TC) data from 1951 to 2013 in the Philippines revealed that an average of 19.4 TCs enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility ( PAR) every year and nine TCs cross the country. Time series analysis of the TC datasets shows no significant trends in the annual number of TCs in PAR but a slightly decreasing trend in the number of landfalling TCs in the Philippines, particularly in the last two decades. However, while the analysis shows fewer typhoons (above 118 kph), more extreme TCs (above 150 kph) have affected the Philippines. The study also confirms that the Northern island of Luzon is most frequently hit by TCs, and that TC-associated rainfall is greatest in this region compared to the southernmost part of the country. The impact of TCs shows a consistently increasing trend in economic losses and damages. Further understanding of past and future trends of TC activity in the Western North Pacific Basin, and the PAR, including the impacts associated with them, will provide valuable insights for climate change adaptation and disaster risk management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forests are important sources of livelihoods to millions of people and contribute to national economic development of many countries. In addition, they are vital sources and sinks of carbon and contribute to the rate of climate change. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization has been collecting and presenting data on global forest resources and forest cover since 1948. This paper builds on data from FAO’s 2015 Global Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) and presents information on growing stock, biomass, carbon stock, wood removals, and changes of forest area primarily designated for production and multiple use of the world’s forests. Between 1990 and 2015, the total growing stock volume has increased in East Asia, Caribbean, Western and Central Asia, North America, Europe (including the Russian Federation), and Oceania with the highest relative increase in East Asia and the Caribbean. In all other subregions the total growing stock volume decreased. North and Central America, Europe and Asia report forest C stock increases while South America and Africa report strong decreases and Oceania reports stable forest C stocks. The annual rate of decrease of forest C stock weakened between 1990 and 2015. The total volume of annual wood removals including woodfuel removals increased between 1990 and 2011, but shows a remarkable decline during the 2008–2009 economic crisis. Forest areas designated for production purposes differ considerably between subregions. The percentage of production area out of total forest area ranges between 16 percent in South America and 53 percent in Europe. Globally about one quarter of the forest area is designated to multiple use forestry. The balance between biomass growth and removals shows considerable sub-regional differences and related implications for the sustainable use of forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical reforestation (TR) has been highlighted as an important intervention for climate change mitigation because of its carbon storage potential. TR can also play other frequently overlooked, but significant, roles in helping society and ecosystems adapt to climate variability and change. For example, reforestation can ameliorate climate-associated impacts of altered hydrological cycles in watersheds, protect coastal areas from increased storms, and provide habitat to reduce the probability of species' extinctions under a changing climate. Consequently, reforestation should be managed with both adaptation and mitigation objectives in mind, so as to maximize synergies among these diverse roles, and to avoid trade-offs in which the achievement of one goal is detrimental to another. Management of increased forest cover must also incorporate measures for reducing the direct and indirect impacts of changing climate on reforestation itself. Here we advocate a focus on 'climate-smart reforestation,' defined as reforesting for climate change mitigation and adaptation, while ensuring that the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on reforestation are anticipated and minimized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation has been practised in the uplands of Southeast Asia for centuries and is estimated to support up to 500 million people – most of whom are poor, natural resource reliant uplanders. Recently, however, dramatic land-use transformations have generated social, economic and ecological impacts that have affected the extent, practice and outcomes of swidden in the region. While certain socio-ecological trends are clear, how these broader land-use changes impact upon local livelihoods and ecosystem services remains uncertain. This systematic review protocol therefore proposes a methodological approach to analysing the evidence on the range of possible outcomes such land-use changes have on swidden and associated livelihood and ecosystem services over time and space. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

There is increasing interest to combine adaptation and mitigation measures that provide win-win solutions to climate change. Agroforestry systems offer compelling synergies between adaptation and mitigation. This article reviews the empirical evidence from various studies on how trees and agroforestry systems enhance smallholders' capacity to adapt to climate risks. Agroforestry systems improve resilience of smallholder farmers through more efficient water utilization, improved microclimate, enhanced soil productivity and nutrient cycling, control of pests and diseases, improved farm productivity, and diversified and increased farm income while at the same time sequestering carbon. Although these seems very promising, tradeoffs may arise both at the farm and landscape scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing interest globally in REDD+ initiatives to help mitigate climate change; the Philippines is no exception. In this paper, we review early REDD+ project experiences in the country. The guiding document for REDD+ in the Philippines is the National REDD+ Strategy (PNRPS) which was prepared by a multisectoral group of authors. There are five REDD+ projects that are underway. The critical factors emerging from these early REDD+ actions are the following: external support, local participation, free prior and informed consent, capacity building, sustainability, national laws and policies, biodiversity conservation, and use of safeguards. The pioneering projects reviewed here as well as the emerging lessons from them will hopefully provide a firmer basis for future REDD+ actions in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Philippines, as an archipelago and a developing country, is very vulnerable to climate change. Current efforts to address the impacts of climate change exist but may not be sufficient. The first part of this paper reviews current knowledge on mainstreaming climate change adaptation into development. It then assesses how far climate change has been mainstreamed into key development plans and programmes in the Philippines. Interviews with key informants were also conducted. The results show that there is no mainstreaming in the Philippines. All the major development plans and policies reviewed did not contain any reference to climate change adaptation. Interviews with key stakeholders reveal a similar trend. The main reason preventing mainstreaming are that national priorities are biased towards concerns deemed more pressing, and that there is a pervasive lack of awareness about the impacts of climate change on sustainable development. However, there are massive investments in infrastructure projects designed to adapt to weather-related hazards. Projects such as these could provide an entry point for integrating climate change adaptation into development plans and policy in the Philippines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The way urbanization unfolds over the next few decades in the developing countries of Asia will have profound implications for sustainability. One of the more important opportunities is to guide urbanization along pathways that begin to uncouple these gains in well-being from rising levels of energy use. Increasing energy use for transport, construction, climate control in houses and offices, and industrial processes is often accompanied by increasing levels of atmospheric emissions that impact human health, ecosystem functions, and the climate system. Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry alter carbon stocks and fluxes as carbon dioxide, methane, and black carbon. In this article we explore how carbon management could be integrated into the development strategies of cities and urbanizing regions. In particular, we explore how changes in urban form, functions, and roles might alter the timing, aggregation, spatial distribution, and composition of carbon emissions. Our emphasis is on identifying system linkages and points of leverage. The study draws primarily on emission inventories and regional development histories carried out in the regions around the cities of Manila, Jakarta, Ho Chi Minh City, New Delhi, and Chiang Mai. We find that how urban functions, such as mobility, shelter, and food, are provided has major implications for carbon emissions, and that each function is influenced by urban form and role in distinct ways. Our case studies highlight the need for major "U-turns" in urban policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study estimated the existing stored carbon (C) and rate of sequestration by vegetation that can potentially serve as a sink for the carbon dioxide emitted from eight geothermal plants in Leyte Geothermal Reservation, Philippines. For the 20,438 ha watershed in the vicinity of the power project, the total C storage is 3.84 Mt C (14.10 Mt CO2) while C sequestration based on biomass change was 47.35 kt C (173.77 kt CO2). Relative to power plant emission, the C stored in the reserve is equivalent to more than 22 years of CO2 emission. Annual C sequestration is 27% of CO2 emission per year. For the next 25 years, two scenarios were projected. Under Scenario I (“Business as Usual”), the forest reserve will be able to store and sequester more than 32 years of CO2 emission from the power plants. Under Scenario II (“Accelerated Reforestation”), the reserve will be able to store and sequester about 34 years of CO2 emission.In addition, the rate of C sequestration based on biomass change in vegetation was recorded to assess the optimum land use that can absorb the carbon dioxide emitted by the power project. These are as follows: tree plantations (10.09 tC/ha/yr)>coconut (4.78 tC/ha/yr)>brushland (4.29 tC/ha/yr)>natural forest (0.92 tC/ha/yr).In terms of cost, the power project operator is spending P1.22 per t CO2 (P4.4 or US$0.12 per tC) for every year of C storage and sequestration. For 25 years, the total cost is P30.40 per tCO2 (P111.5 or US$2.94 per tC) which is comparable to the cost of C offset in other tropical countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Forest ecosystems play an indispensable role in addressing various pressing sustainability and social-ecological challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem services deterioration, hence the monitoring of the world's forests is crucial. As part of the global forest assessment workflow, a forest is generally classified and mapped based on land use and/or using a tree canopy cover threshold. In this paper, we examine the limitations of this approach and argue that the use of a land use-based forest definition and tree canopy cover thresholds can overlook forest degradation and enhancement, disguise the actual status of forest landscapes, and misinform management planning. These limitations can delay the development and implementation of forest restoration and conservation measures. To help overcome these issues, we propose some enhancements to the global forest assessment workflow, including the sharing of spatial data and inclusion of tree canopy cover estimates in assessment reports. Such enhancements are needed to achieve more meaningful forest monitoring and reporting in the context of global environmental initiatives, such as those related to climate change mitigation and adaptation, forest restoration, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem services monitoring. • We examine the use of land use-based forest concept and tree canopy cover thresholds in forest monitoring. • This approach for forest monitoring can overlook forest degradation and enhancement. • It can disguise the actual status of forest landscapes and misinform management planning. • It can delay the development and implementation of forest restoration and conservation measures. • We propose some enhancements to the global forest assessment workflow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]