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The storage of carbon (C) in cultivated soils can be increased with the adoption of different practices. The objective of this study was to determine soil organic carbon (SOC) storage in the 0‐ to 90‐cm depth profile, in four different soil layers (0–15, 15–30, 30–60 and 60–90 cm) in a long‐term (29 years) experiment established in 1986 on a rainfed Mediterranean Vertisol in southern Spain. The treatments studied were: conventional tillage (CT) versus no‐tillage (NT); five 2‐year crop rotations (wheat–chickpea, wheat–sunflower, wheat–bare fallow, wheat–faba bean, and continuous wheat; and nitrogen (N) fertilizer applied to wheat at four rates (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg N ha−1). The SOC accumulation was higher in the 30–60‐cm layer (9.2 Mg ha−1) due to the size of the characteristic cracks of Vertisols under semiarid conditions. Over the 29‐year study period, the SOC in the 0–90‐cm layer increased by 23.6 Mg ha−1 due to the change in residue management. The NT treatment exhibited a higher mean annual rate of organic C accumulation compared with the CT treatment (1.0 and 0.66 Mg ha−1 year−1, respectively) due to the retention of the mulched residue. Additionally, crop rotation influenced the rate of organic C accumulation, with wheat‐faba bean, wheat‐sunflower and continuous wheat exhibiting the highest levels of C storage in comparison to the other treatments. In rainfed Mediterranean agriculture, the selection of no‐tillage along with a rotation with legumes is key to improving soil fertility and increasing C reserves and the rate of C accumulation by soil. Highlights: The SOC increase over the 29‐year study period was 23.6 Mg ha−1 in the 0–90‐cm soil profile.The characteristic cracks of Vertisol increase SOC stocks in deeper soil layers.No tillage accumulated 66.2% more SOC than conventional tillage in the 0–90‐cm profile.The wheat–sunflower rotation had the highest annual rate of C sequestration (1 Mg ha−1 year−1) and wheat–chickpea the lowest (0.6 Mg ha−1 year−1) over 29 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Roots and the nutrients that they deposit into the soil are a natural source of N for a current crop, or a subsequent crop in the case of rotations. Despite the importance of this process, there are few field studies of rhizodeposition due to methodological difficulties. A two-year field study was conducted on a typical Mediterranean rainfed Vertisol to determine the effects of the tillage system on N rhizodeposition in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The tillage treatments were no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT). Wheat plants were labelled in situ with 15N using a leaf feeding method. The total amount of N that was deposited by the roots in the full soil profile (0–75cm) over two years was an average of 93kgha−1. The N derived from rhizodeposition (NdfR) represented 40% of the total N content and 82% of belowground N for the wheat plant. The NdfR was higher under NT only in the first layer of the soil (0–15cm). Fifty percent of the NdfR in the soil profile was observed within the first 15cm, increasing to 74% within the first 30cm. The amount of NdfR can be important for understanding farming systems and improving their management, especially the application of fertilizers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The application of an adequate rate and splitting of nitrogen (N) is essential for the efficient use of N fertiliser and to maintain the economic sustainability of cropping systems. A 3-year field experiment was conducted on a Vertisol under Mediterranean conditions to determine the effect of tillage systems, crop rotation, and variations in N timing on the grain yield and N recovery of 15N-labelled fertiliser (N R) in hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The experiment was designed as a randomised complete block with a split–split plot arrangement and 3 replications. The main plots were tillage system (no-tillage [NT] and conventional tillage [CT]), and the subplots were the preceding crop with 2-year rotations (wheat–sunflower [WS], wheat–chickpea [WC], and wheat–faba bean [WFB]). Sub-subplots were the N timing (all at the same rate of 100kgNha−1), and the fertiliser was applied 50% at sowing and 50% at stem elongation and 50% at tillering and 50% at stem elongation. The area of each basic plot was 50m2 (5m×10m). The residual NO3–N content (0–90cm) was significantly higher in CT than in NT, the opposite occurring with grain yield. The N R of NT was greater than that of CT. According to the previous crop, the N R was WS>WFB=WC. The soil nitrate content was twice as much when the preceding crop was a legume compared with sunflower and the wheat yields were as follows: WFB>WC>WS. Although the N timing did not have an effect on overall grain yield, the interactions with year, tillage system and previous crop were significant. The average recovery of 15N fertiliser by wheat was 44.6%, with 33.7% obtained in the grain (41% in stem elongation, 32% in tillering and 27% in sowing). The habitual use of high rates of N fertiliser and the frequency of dry years in the agrosystem studied generated a progressive accumulation of residual in the soil profile. This can represent an important source of mineral N for the cereal and can reduce the need to apply N fertiliser to the crop. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A well-developed root system is crucial for plant growth, especially under dryland farming conditions. A two-year field study (2003–2004 and 2005–2006) was conducted to determine the effects of the tillage system on root growth in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) grown in continuous rotation with wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on a typical Vertisol in southern Spain as part of the long-term “Malagon” experiment begun in 1986. The tillage treatments were either no tillage (NT) or conventional tillage (CT), and the experiment was designed as a randomized complete block with three replications. Both soil cores and a minirhizotron were used to evaluate the root system. Measurements of the root parameters were performed at different depths and included the following: root length, root biomass, root nitrogen and root length density. Root length measurements were performed during five chickpea growth stages. The CT was more favourable than NT for chickpea root development (0.34mmcm−3 versus 0.18mmcm−3), which is one of the factors that induced higher yields during the drier year. The nitrogen content of the roots represented 15% of the total N extracted by the plant. The measured root lengths were larger when using the soil core method than with the minirhizotron (2.5mmcm−3 versus 1.3mmcm−3), which can be attributed to the cracks that occur in Mediterranean Vertisols that can separate the tube from the soil, resulting in the underestimation of the root length. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Studies on the growth of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) root systems in Vertisols under Mediterranean climates are practically non-existent. A three-year field study (2003–2004, 2005–2006 and 2006–2007) was conducted on a typical Vertisol (in southern Spain) to determine, using a minirhizotron system, the effects of tillage on root growth in faba bean grown in continuous rotation with wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) as part of the long-term “Malagón” experiment that started in 1986. Tillage treatments were no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT). The parameters measured were root length (RL), root diameter (RD), root biomass (RB), seed yield and aboveground biomass. Root growth measures with minirhizotron were carried out at six soil depths for five growth stages throughout the faba bean growing season. For the calculation of RB, soil cores were collected during flowering from the same six soil depths. NT was more favorable for the development of the faba bean root system when compared with CT. This can be attributed to improved physical properties of the soil under NT, which improves the water conditions of the soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Good root system development is essential for optimum wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain yield, especially under water-limiting conditions. Published information about the influence of tillage system on root dynamic and their effect on grain yield in Mediterranean rainfed Vertisols is scarce. A three-year field study was conducted on a typical Mediterranean rainfed Vertisol to determine, using a minirhizotron system, the effects of tillage system on root growth and grain yield in wheat. Tillage treatments were no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT). The parameters measured were root length (RL) and root diameter (RD) for 6 depths. Minirhizotron measurements were performed at 5 wheat growth stages. The RL was greater under NT than under CT for most growth stages and depths, this being the key to its greater grain yield (3.2 vs 3.0Mgha −1, respectively). The RD was not significantly affected by the tillage treatments, but was lower from stem elongation onward and during the dry years. The key to the development of a good wheat root system is the rainfall received during the tillering stage, regardless of soil water content at planting and rainfall before or after this growth stage. Under the rainfed Mediterranean Vertisol studied, wheat productivity is greater under NT due to better root system development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] No-tillage registered higher water content in the soil at sowing than in conventional tillage. [•] Grain yield improved with no-tillage system. [•] Water use was superior in the no-tillage system than in the conventional tillage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Nitrogen fertilization is a key factor of the aesthetics and playability for golf greens. Nitrogen fertilization management is based on predetermined scheduled applications, set rates, or expected improvement in visual quality and green speed. As a consequence, the objective of this study was to obtain seasonal N application models (algorithms) based on remote sensing, optimizing playability and aesthetic quality. A 3-yr field study under Mediterranean conditions was conducted on an experimental ‘L-93’ creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) USGA green, to examine effects of seasonal N fertilizer rates on color, clipping yields, and ball roll (green speed). The remote sensors used were a digital camera and reflectance meter (FieldScout CM1000 Chlorophyll Meter). From digital photographs, a dark green color index (DGCI) was calculated. All data were normalized (relative). For all seasons, a third-order polynomial response model was the best when using a CM1000 and a digital camera. Clipping yields and ball roll regressions were linear, increasing and decreasing when the N fertilizer rate increased, respectively. Ball roll and clipping relative values were correlated with both sensors. To fit a seasonal optimum N fertilizer rate model as a function of remote sensors and the other measured parameters, the intersection of models obtained from relative values of CM1000 and digital camera with ball roll and clipping was calculated, but ball roll was considered the most suitable. The model of the digital camera with automatic settings was less accurate and underestimated the optimum N rate. However, because the actual values of digital camera and CM1000 were correlated, converting DGCI values and applying CM1000 models enabled the obtaining of practically the same N fertilizer applications. A practical application procedure of these seasonal models for an entire golf course was also shown. Actual N recommendation applications with a quick remote diagnosis (CM1000) for creeping bentgrass golf green are feasible under similar management practices in Mediterranean environments. A digital camera can also be used successfully, but it should be better when its analysis is based on CM1000 models. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Efficient management of legumes in order to maximize benefits depends on a correct field assessment of N2 fixation. A field experiment was conducted during a 6-year period (2001–2002 to 2006–2007) in Córdoba (Southern Spain) on a rainfed Vertisol within the wheat-chickpea and wheat-faba bean rotation framework of a long-term experiment started in 1986. The aim was to determine the effect of tillage systems [no tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT)] on chickpea and faba bean N2 fixation. Fixation was calculated using the 15N isotopic dilution (ID) and 15N natural abundance (NA) methods with the reference being the wheat crop. The strong inter-annual rain variation caused great differences in the behaviour of both leguminous plants with regard to grain yield, nodule biomass and N2 fixation. The NT system showed more nodule biomass than the CT system in both legumes. The ID method was more accurate than the NA method in determining N2 fixation. The average amount of fixed N in faba bean (80kgha−1 year−1) was much greater than that in chickpea (31kgha−1 year−1). The Vertisol under the NT system offered more favourable conditions for the stimulation of the N2 fixation, with fixed N values that were significantly higher than under CT. The N added to the system through N2 fixation was low in faba bean and virtually nonexistent in chickpea, only in terms of above-ground biomass. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]