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The present study was designed to understand and optimize self-assessment accuracy in cognitive skill acquisition through example-based learning. We focused on the initial problem-solving phase, which follows after studying worked examples. At the end of this phase, it is important that learners are aware whether they have already understood the solution procedure. In Experiment 1, we tested whether self-assessment accuracy depended on whether learners were prompted to infer their self-assessments from explanation-based cues (ability to explain the problems' solutions) or from performance-based cues (problem-solving performance) and on whether learners were informed about the to-be-monitored cue before or only after the problem-solving phase. We found that performance-based cues resulted in better self-assessment accuracy and that informing learners about the to-be-monitored cue before problem-solving enhanced self-assessment accuracy. In Experiment 2, we again tested whether self-assessment accuracy depended on whether learners were prompted to infer their self-assessments from explanation- or performance-based cues. We furthermore varied whether learners received instruction on criteria for interpreting the cues and whether learners were prompted to self-explain during problem-solving. When learners received no further instructional support, like in Experiment 1, performance-based cues yielded better self-assessment accuracy. Only when learners who were prompted to infer their self-assessments from explanation-based cues received both cue criteria instruction and prompts to engage in self-explaining during problem-solving did they show similar self-assessment accuracy as learners who utilized performance-based cues. Overall, we conclude that it is more efficient to prompt learners to monitor performance-based rather than explanation-based cues in the initial problem-solving phase.

Background: In example-based learning, examples are often combined with generative activities, such as comparative self-explanations of example cases. Comparisons induce heavy demands on working memory, especially in complex domains. Hence, only stronger learners may benefit from comparative self-explanations. While static text-based examples can be compared easily, this is challenging for transient video-based modelling examples used in complex domains because simultaneous processing of two videos is not feasible. Objectives: To allow for such comparisons, we combined video-based modelling examples with static representations (i.e., summarizing tables) of the observed optimal and a suboptimal solution of the problem-solving process. A comparative self-explanation prompt asked learners to compare the different solution approaches. Our study investigated the impact of video-based modelling examples versus independent problem-solving on cognitive load and problem-solving skill development. Moreover, we investigated the effects of comparative versus sequential self-explanation prompts, depending on learners' prior knowledge. Methods: In an experiment, 118 automotive apprentices learned a car malfunction diagnosis strategy. Apprentices were divided into three groups: (1) modelling examples with comparative self-explanation prompts, (2) modelling examples with sequential prompts, and (3) no examples or prompts. Diagnostic knowledge and skills were assessed before and after the intervention. Cognitive load was measured retrospectively. Results and conclusions: Despite no observed effects on cognitive load, modelling examples enhanced diagnostic knowledge and diagnostic skills with scaffolds, though not independent diagnostic skills without scaffolds. The need for more practice opportunities to foster independent diagnostic skills is assumed. Additionally, comparative prompts seem promising for learners with higher prior knowledge. Takeaways: Video-based modelling examples were more beneficial for learning than practising to apply the diagnostic strategy. Static representations allow for comparisons of video examples and comparative prompts are promising for learners with higher prior knowledge (cf. expertise-reversal effect). Further research, especially on the effects on cognitive load, is necessary.

Self-explanation prompts in example-based learning are usually directed backwards: Learners are required to self-explain problem-solving steps just presented ("retrospective" prompts). However, it might also help to self-explain upcoming steps ("anticipatory" prompts). The effects of the prompt type may differ for learners with various expertise levels, with anticipatory prompts being better for learners with more expertise. In an experiment, we employed extensive modelling examples and different types of self-explanations prompts to teach 78 automotive apprentices a complex and job-relevant problem-solving strategy, namely the diagnosis of car malfunctions. We tested the effects of these modelling examples and self-explanation prompts on problem-solving strategy knowledge and skill, self-efficacy, and cognitive load while learning. In two conditions, the apprentices learned with modelling examples and received either retrospective or anticipatory prompts. The third condition was a control condition receiving no modelling examples, but the respective open problems. In comparison with the control condition, modelling examples did not promote learning. However, we observed differential effects of the self-explanation prompts depending on the learner's prior knowledge level. Apprentices with higher prior knowledge learned more when learning with anticipatory prompts. Apprentices with less prior knowledge experienced a greater increase in self-efficacy and a higher germane cognitive load when learning with retrospective prompts. These findings suggest using different self-explanation prompts for learners possessing varying levels of expertise.

In the context of instructional design and self-regulated learning research, the notion of mental effort allocation, monitoring, and control has gained increasing attention. Bringing together a cognitive perspective, focusing on Cognitive Load Theory, and a motivational perspective, merging central accounts from Situated Expectancy Value Theory and Self-Determination Theory, we plea for a three-fold conception of effort that clearly distinguishes the different psychological sources of experiencing and allocating effort in learning environments: effort-by-complexity, effort-by-need frustration, and effort-by-allocation. Such a detailed conception has important implications for how effort should be studied and how it can be influenced by instructional support or by the learning individual itself. A first conclusion we draw is that cognitively oriented research needs to be careful when taking students' self-reports on the "effortfulness" of a task as an indication of the object-level cognitive requirements of the task, as such appraisals may also reflect the affective-emotional requirements of task execution as well as motivational beliefs regarding the likelihood of success and meaningfulness of a task. A second conclusion is that instructional procedures rooted in cognition-oriented theory ideally are complemented by motivation theory to support student learning optimally.

Background: Students often show unfavourable attribution: they attribute poor school performance to stable factors such as lack of ability and good school performance to variable factors such as effort. However, attribution can be influenced by individualized digital re-attributional feedback leading to positive motivational effects and higher learning outcomes. This is very promising, but it still is unclear, whether this digital re-attributional feedback can also be successfully integrated in everyday classroom activities. Objectives: The present field experiment investigated how integrating digital re-attributional feedback into classroom instruction affects student attribution, motivation and learning outcomes. Methods: In the experiment, 8th-10th grade high school students (N = 322) worked with a digital mathematics learning program which was integrated in a three-week teaching unit. Half the students in each classroom received only standard feedback after each practice task (SF group); the other half received additionally an individual re-attributional feedback (RF group) after every third task. Attribution, mathematics self-concept, and self-efficacy were measured by an online questionnaire twice a week; learning outcomes in mathematics were measured weekly. Results and Conclusion: Hierarchical analyses showed that re-attributional feedback led to a more favourable attribution in case of success on stable factors. Especially low-performing students benefited from this feedback. No effects on attribution in case of failure, self-efficacy or learning outcomes could be found. Further research could investigate if certain adaptations to the digital re-attributional feedback is more effective in a real classroom setting and has a broader impact on different students.

Background & Aims: Cognitive load theory assumes that the higher the learner's prior knowledge (i.e., the more expert the learner), the lower the intrinsic cognitive load (complexity) experienced for a given problem. While this is the case in many scenarios, there can be cases in which the converse is also true, resulting in more expert learners reporting higher intrinsic cognitive load than novices for the same problem. This can occur in relation to problems involving complex systems (e.g., ecological systems), for which novices' problem representations may underestimate problem complexity and therefore report lower intrinsic load than experts. This finding is borne out in the current paper. Samples, Methods & Results: In Study 1 with 118 participants from the Black Forest area in Germany, participants with higher levels of forestry and ecological expertise evaluated a problem relating to the restructuring of the Black Forest to adapt to climate change as more complex than did novices. In Study 2 (within-subjects design, n = 66 primary-school students), we conceptually replicated this finding in a domain more typical of cognitive load theory studies, mathematics. We found that higher prior knowledge also reduced the underestimation of the complexity of 'tricky', but frequently used, mathematics word problems. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that cognitive load theory's assumptions about intrinsic load and prior knowledge should be refined, as there seems to exist a sub-set of problem-solving tasks for which the traditional relationship between prior knowledge and reported ICL is reversed.

In psychology programs, students should acquire both domain-specific knowledge and cross-domain competences important for later practice (e.g., multiple document literacy). Typically, such competences are trained "directly" in courses explicitly devoted to them or indirectly in courses on psychological topics that require them without systematically teaching and training them (e.g., when reading multiple texts about a topic). To exploit the advantages of both direct and indirect training approaches, we combined them in a new psychology course in which students were taught domain-specific knowledge on pedagogy and psychotherapy, and they were trained in the competence facets of (a) epistemic beliefs, (b) multiple document literacy, and (c) argumentative thinking. The direct training took a tried-and-tested example-based learning approach. A central element of the indirect training consisted of course assessments requiring the application of these three competences to the contents about pedagogy and psychotherapy. The combined training approach led to significant increases in declarative knowledge, advanced epistemic beliefs, and greater self-efficacy in implementing strategies relating to multiple document literacy and argumentative thinking. This approach can be adapted to accommodate different psychological content areas or different cross-domain competences.

IntroductionWorked examples support initial skill acquisition. They often show skill application on content knowledge from another, “exemplifying” domain (e.g., argumentation skills have to be applied to some contents). Although learners’ focus should remain on the skill, learners need to understand the content knowledge to benefit from worked examples. Previous studies relied on exemplifying domains that are familiar and contain simple topics, to keep learners’ focus on skill acquisition.AimWe examined whether using a relevant exemplifying domain would allow learners to acquire both skills and content knowledge simultaneously, or whether relevant content distracts from the main learning goal of skill acquisition.Methods and resultsIn a training study with 142 psychology students, we used example-based learning materials with an exemplifying domain that was either relevant or irrelevant for participants’ course outcomes. We assessed cognitive load, declarative knowledge about skills and course-related content knowledge, and argumentation quality. Incorporating relevant content knowledge in worked examples did not reduce learning outcomes compared to a condition using an irrelevant exemplifying domain.DiscussionContrary to previous research, the results suggest that worked examples with a relevant exemplifying domain could possibly be an efficient teaching method for fostering skills and content knowledge simultaneously.

Background: Previous research has shown that teachers hold misconceptions about multimedia learning (e.g., multimedia instruction needs to be adapted to students' learning styles), which may be at odds with evidence-based teaching. Objectives: Refutation texts are a classical method to reduce misconceptions and thus to stimulate conceptual change. We wanted to know whether making use of a computer algorithm to personalize refutation texts would best initiate teachers' conceptual change. Methods: We designed an online experiment, in which N = 129 in-service teachers read either (1) expository texts (without direct refutation), (2) common refutation texts, or (3) personalized refutation texts. The teachers filled in a misconception questionnaire pre and post to assess their conceptual change. Results and Conclusions: Statistical analyses revealed that personalized refutation texts initiated the strongest conceptual change, which was driven by increased feelings of guilt and shame. Common refutation texts did not foster teachers' conceptual change as compared to expository texts. These findings indicate that refutation texts should be personalized for experienced practitioners such as teachers. Takeaways: Personalized refutation seems to be promising in the context of online teacher training programs. Further research should test to which extent the present findings also apply to other groups of experienced learners or practitioners.

Students' beliefs that mathematical abilities are fixed can cause long-standing problems with motivation and learning. Hence, teachers should notice such problematic beliefs about identity among their students and handle them adequately. We used written descriptions of classroom situations to determine whether preservice mathematics teachers (n = 80) noticed fixed beliefs about mathematical abilities and whether they had strategies for dealing with them. The qualitative data were coded and transformed into a score for noticing. We found that most of the preservice teachers did not notice problematic beliefs. Thereby, preservice teachers who believed that mathematical abilities are malleable were more likely to notice fixed beliefs among students. When describing beliefs, few participants referred to theoretical concepts. Hardly any preservice teachers suggested strategies for handling students' beliefs. However, the strategies that were suggested mostly corresponded with findings from educational research. Our study provides first evidence that preservice teachers' abilities to notice and handle belief-related problems may be insufficient. We discuss implications for teacher education as well as directions for future research.

Teaching the contents of study materials by providing explanations to fellow students can be a beneficial instructional activity. A learning-by-teaching effect can also occur when students provide explanations to a real, remote, or even fictitious audience that cannot be interacted with. It is unclear, however, which underlying mechanisms drive "learning by non-interactive teaching effects" and why several recent studies did not replicate this effect. This literature review aims to shed light on "when" and "why" learning by non-interactive teaching works. First, we review the empirical literature to comment on the different mechanisms that have been proposed to explain why learning by non-interactive teaching may be effective. Second, we discuss the available evidence regarding potential boundary conditions of the non-interactive teaching effect. We then synthesize the available empirical evidence on processes and boundary conditions to provide a preliminary theoretical model of when and why non-interactive teaching is effective. Finally, based on our model of learning by non-interactive teaching, we outline several promising directions for future research and recommendations for educational practice.

A worked-out or an open inventing problem with contrasting cases can prepare learners for learning from subsequent instruction differently regarding motivation and cognition. In addition, such activities potentially initiate different learning processes during the subsequent ("future") learning phase. In this experiment (N = 45 pre-service teachers), we aimed to replicate effects of earlier studies on learning outcomes and, on this basis, to analyze respective learning processes during the future-learning phase via think-aloud protocols. The inventing group invented criteria to assess learning strategies in learning journals while the worked-example group studied the same problem in a solved version. Afterwards, the pre-service teachers thought aloud during learning in a computer-based learning environment. We did not find substantial motivational differences (interest, self-efficacy), but the worked-example group clearly outperformed their counterparts in transfer (BF[subscript +0] > 313). We found moderate evidence for the hypothesis that their learning processes during the subsequent learning phase was deepened: the example group showed more elaborative processes, more spontaneous application of the canonical, but also of sub-optimal solutions than the inventing group (BFs around 4), and it tended to focus more on the most relevant learning contents. Explorative analyses suggest that applying canonical solutions to examples is one of the processes explaining why working through the solution leads to higher transfer. In conclusion, a worked-out inventing problem seems to prepare future learning more effectively than an open inventing activity by deepening and focusing subsequent learning processes.

Prior research indicates that student teachers frequently have misconceptions about multimedia learning. Our experiment with N = 96 student teachers revealed that, in contrast to standard texts, refutation texts are effective to address misconceptions about multimedia learning. However, there seems to be no added benefit of making "concessions" to student teachers' prior beliefs (i.e., two-sided argumentation) in refutation texts. Moreover, refutation texts did not promote the selection of appropriate multimedia material. This study suggests that refutation texts addressing multimedia-learning misconceptions should be applied in teacher education. Yet, further support seems needed to aid the application of the corrected knowledge.

We investigated how to optimize the effectiveness of retrieval-based learning when the instructional text comprises seductive details (i.e., interesting but irrelevant text adjuncts). Specific questions during retrieval practice should help students focus their recall on main ideas--and not on seductive details, which should in turn foster delayed post-test performance. In this experiment, participants (N = 103) learned from an instructional text about coffee, either with or without seductive details; in subsequent retrieval practice, the participants received either unspecific or specific questions (2 × 2 between-subjects design). One week later, all participants received a delayed posttest assessing learning outcomes. As expected, when the instructional text comprised seductive details, participants given specific questions during retrieval practice had better learning outcomes than those given an unspecific question. We conclude that retrieval tasks should be aligned with learning materials: more specific retrieval tasks are better for materials including irrelevant information.

When analyzing classroom video, pre-service teachers can improve their professional vision, that is, their ability to notice important events in a classroom and to interpret them based on theoretical knowledge. However, learning with video is especially challenging for novice learners. Thus, video needs to be embedded into an instructional context to be effective. In an experimental study with 89 pre-service biology teachers, we investigated the effect of a short professional vision training and whether two design principles from multimedia learning research--namely segmenting and self-explanation prompts--could additionally increase training effects. In a one-hour training session on small-group tutoring strategies, participants watched practice video examples either as a whole or segmented. After each video or video segment, respectively, they received either open or focused self-explanation prompts to analyze the scene. We assessed participants' professional vision skills before and after training. Overall, participants' performance substantially increased from pretest to posttest. Moreover, during training, both segmented video examples and focused self-explanation prompts led to increased noticing of relevant strategies. This advantage during training, however, did not result in higher professional vision improvement in posttest scores compared to participants who worked in the less supported training phase conditions. We discuss possible explanations why additional support increased training performance but not learning gains and suggest an additional fading phase as a means to achieve persistent effects.

In this study, we present the newly developed "Misconceptions about Multimedia Learning Questionnaire" (MMLQ), we evaluate its psychometric properties (item difficulties, scale reliabilities, and internal structure), and we use it to examine the prevalence of four different misconceptions about multimedia learning in student teachers and teachers. A total of 311 participants (176 teachers and 135 student teachers) responded to the items of the MMLQ. The results revealed moderate reliabilities of the MMLQ scales. Moreover, an a priori assumed four-factor structure of misconceptions about multimedia learning was most compatible with teachers' and student teachers' answers to the MMLQ items. These four factors were "learning styles" (multimedia instruction needs to be adapted to students' learning styles [visual or auditory]), "hemispheric isolation" (multimedia instruction enables hemispheric communication), "naïve summation" (multimedia instruction is more effective the more sensory channels are used), and "motivation primacy" (multimedia instruction is mainly effective because it is motivating). The majority of teachers and student teachers endorsed three of the four misconceptions about multimedia learning (i.e., learning styles [78.1%], hemispheric isolation [58.8%], and naïve summation [81.4%]) as assessed by the MMLQ. This finding may provide valuable information for teacher education and training regarding this specific issue.

Background: Past research has shown that seductive details (i.e., interesting, but irrelevant adjuncts in learning materials) hamper learning in short, instructor-paced learning sessions through impaired cognitive processing. Objectives: We integrate theory and research on multimedia learning and self-control to test whether detrimental effects of seductive details also apply to longer and strenuous learning sessions (e.g., online lectures), in which there is greater need for self-control. Methods: A total of N = 194 students studied five chapters in a digital learning unit about chemistry either (1) without seductive details, or (2) with seductive details but without being informed about their irrelevance for the learning goal, or (3) with seductive details while being informed about their irrelevance. To assess learning outcomes, all students completed the same posttests for recall and transfer of knowledge. Results and conclusions: For students who were uninformed about the details' irrelevance, the seductive details impeded learning outcomes not just overall, but also in the final phase of prolonged studying (i.e., when the willingness to self-control is reduced). The latter effect was mediated through a reduced positive affect. Implications: The seductive details effect seems to generalize to prolonged learning sessions, where students may start to dislike the seductive details.

Previous studies have investigated the characteristics, influencing factors, and working strategies of highly successful educational psychologists. These studies, however, have focused mainly on male scholars. Consequently, little is known about how successful female educational psychologists go about their work and are so productive. In the present study, we addressed this gap by interviewing five leading female educational psychologists (Patricia Alexander, Carol Dweck, Jacquelynne Eccles, Mareike Kunter, and Tamara van Gog) about factors that have aided their success and about their gender-related experiences. The five female scholars revealed their trademark characteristics, the important people and places that influenced their careers, and their time- and research-management strategies. They also provided unique insights about their experiences and perspectives as women in the field of educational psychology. Findings offer guidance for budding scholars, particularly women.

The foundation of how students usually learn is laid early in their academic lives. However, many or even most students do not primarily rely on those learning strategies that are most favorable from a scientific point of view. To change students' learning behavior when they start their university education, we developed a computer-based adaptive learning environment to train favorable learning strategies and change students' habits using them. This learning environment pursues three main goals: acquiring declarative and conditional knowledge about learning strategies, consolidating that knowledge, and applying these learning strategies in practice. In this report, we describe four experimental studies conducted to optimize this learning environment (n = 336). With those studies, we improved the learning environment with respect to how motivating it is, investigated an efficient way to consolidate knowledge, and explored how to facilitate the formation of effective implementation intentions for applying learning strategies and changing learning habits. Our strategy-training module is implemented in the curriculum for freshman students at the Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg (Germany). Around 120 students take part in our program every year. An open version of this training intervention is freely available to everyone.

To achieve deeper understanding when learning from multiple representations, learners should actively select, organize and integrate the relevant information from text and graphics within a coherent mental representation. However, as learners often fail to select and integrate all relevant information, especially from graphics, they need specific instructional support. The current study investigated the effects of instructional support in the form of adjunct aids (i.e. fill-in-the blank tasks) with references to the graphics (e.g. "see Figure X") on retention and understanding. In our study, 106 learners (N) received multimedia instructional materials about the formation of auroras either with or without adjunct aids -- the former with references to graphics (signals), or with none. In line with our hypotheses, adjunct aids with signals led to deeper understanding, as reflected by higher scores in the comprehension test. In contrast, adjunct aids with signals did not lead to higher scores in the retention test. Thus, our results are in line with previous research, showing that instructional support for integrating text and graphics specifically fosters deeper understanding. Possible boundary conditions and implications for future research are discussed.

We investigated the processes that make seductive details (i.e., interesting but irrelevant pictures and text passages in learning materials) harmful for learning scientific concepts and principles. In our experiment, students (N = 113) learned without seductive details (control condition) or with seductive details, and afterwards worked on a knowledge test. They then retrospectively verbalized their thoughts during learning while watching a replay of their eye-movements during the learning session (cued retrospective reporting). Our findings showed that seductive details hampered the transfer of knowledge in students with lower final school grades (d = -0.60). The verbal reports from the seductive details group, which were rated according to three detrimental cognitive processes, indicated that several students constructed mental models around the seductive details (i.e., diversion). This diversion led to worse recall of the relevant learning contents. The detrimental effects of seductive details therefore seem to be mainly caused by diversion.

Abstract When analyzing classroom video, pre-service teachers can improve their professional vision, that is, their ability to notice important events in a classroom and to interpret them based on theoretical knowledge. However, learning with video is especially challenging for novice learners. Thus, video needs to be embedded into an instructional context to be effective. In an experimental study with 89 pre-service biology teachers, we investigated the effect of a short professional vision training and whether two design principles from multimedia learning research—namely segmenting and self-explanation prompts—could additionally increase training effects. In a one-hour training session on small-group tutoring strategies, participants watched practice video examples either as a whole or segmented. After each video or video segment, respectively, they received either open or focused self-explanation prompts to analyze the scene. We assessed participants’ professional vision skills before and after training. Overall, participants’ performance substantially increased from pretest to posttest. Moreover, during training, both segmented video examples and focused self-explanation prompts led to increased noticing of relevant strategies. This advantage during training, however, did not result in higher professional vision improvement in posttest scores compared to participants who worked in the less supported training phase conditions. We discuss possible explanations why additional support increased training performance but not learning gains and suggest an additional fading phase as a means to achieve persistent effects.

Introduction: Worked examples support initial skill acquisition. They often show skill application on content knowledge from another, "exemplifying" domain (e.g., argumentation skills have to be applied to some contents). Although learners' focus should remain on the skill, learners need to understand the content knowledge to benefit from worked examples. Previous studies relied on exemplifying domains that are familiar and contain simple topics, to keep learners' focus on skill acquisition. Aim: We examined whether using a relevant exemplifying domain would allow learners to acquire both skills and content knowledge simultaneously, or whether relevant content distracts from the main learning goal of skill acquisition. Methods and results: In a training study with 142 psychology students, we used example-based learning materials with an exemplifying domain that was either relevant or irrelevant for participants' course outcomes. We assessed cognitive load, declarative knowledge about skills and course-related content knowledge, and argumentation quality. Incorporating relevant content knowledge in worked examples did not reduce learning outcomes compared to a condition using an irrelevant exemplifying domain. Discussion: Contrary to previous research, the results suggest that worked examples with a relevant exemplifying domain could possibly be an efficient teaching method for fostering skills and content knowledge simultaneously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The type of a recall task may substantially influence the effects of learning by retrieval practice. In a within-subject design, 54 university students studied two expository texts, followed by retrieval practice with either short-answer tasks (targeted retrieval) or a free-recall task (holistic retrieval). Concerning the direct effects of retrieval practice, short-answer tasks led to increased retention of directly retrieved targeted information from the learning contents, whereas free-recall tasks led to better retention of further information from the learning contents. Concerning indirect effects, short-answer tasks improved metacognitive calibration; free-recall tasks increased self-efficacy and situational interest. These findings confirm the assumption that the effects of retrieval practice depend on the type of recall task: short-answer tasks help us remember targeted information units and foster metacognitive calibration. Free-recall tasks help us remember a broader spectrum of information, and they foster motivational factors.

The main goals of this paper are to exemplify and further elaborate on the theoretical connections between cognitive load and self-regulated learning. In an effort to achieve this, we integrate the concepts of self-control and self-management within the effort monitoring and regulation (EMR) framework laid out by de Bruin et al. (Educational Psychology Review this issue). More specifically, we argue that (1) cognitive load results from how the instruction is "processed" and not just from how it is designed (cf. self-management effect). (2) How instruction is processed by students (also) depends on their skill and will to self-control. For instance, high self-control may reflect compensatory processing of poorer instructional designs so that these designs may not lead to higher extraneous cognitive load. As soon as students' willingness to self-control declines (e.g., with increasing study durations or previous demanding tasks), there is a closer link between (poorer) instructional designs and (higher) extraneous cognitive load in self-regulated learning tasks. Combining (1) and (2), we consider cognitive load to be influenced by self-control; (self-)control, in turn, is one central process of the monitoring-control cycle that characterizes self-regulated learning. We support these theoretical arguments by referring to empirical research in the domain of learning with multiple representations--with a particular focus on learning with and without seductive details during extended study episodes. We conclude with suggestions for further research.

We propose the self-regulation view in writing-to-learn as a promising theoretical perspective that draws on models of self-regulated learning theory and cognitive load theory. According to this theoretical perspective, writing has the potential to scaffold self-regulated learning due to the cognitive offloading written text generally offers as an external representation and memory aid, and due to the offloading, that specifically results from the genre-free principle in journal writing. However, to enable learners to optimally exploit this learning opportunity, the journal writing needs to be instructionally supported. Accordingly, we have set up a research program--the Freiburg Self-Regulated-Journal-Writing Approach--in which we developed and tested different instructional support methods to foster learning outcomes by optimizing cognitive load during self-regulated learning by journal writing. We will highlight the main insights of our research program which are synthesized from 16 experimental and 4 correlative studies published in 16 original papers. Accordingly, we present results on (1) the effects of prompting germane processing in journal writing, (2) the effects of providing worked examples and metacognitive information to support students in effectively exploiting prompted journal writing for self-regulated learning, (3) the effects of adapting and fading guidance in line with learners' expertise in self-regulated learning, and (4) the effects of journal writing on learning motivation and motivation to write. The article closes with a discussion of several avenues of how the Freiburg Self-Regulated-Journal-Writing Approach can be developed further to advance research that integrates self-regulated learning with cognitive load theory.

Multiple studies have revealed the beneficial effects of emotional design on affective or motivational factors but not often on learning outcomes. We, therefore, tested one important boundary condition: the duration of the learning episode. For the implementation of emotional design, we used the video format of sketched explanation videos, which is particularly popular on online video platforms. We tested the hypothesis that emotional design is beneficial for learning but only in the later phases of studying (sustained learning). This learning benefit is mediated via triggered and maintained situational interest. Seventy-nine students took part in a two-group between-subjects design. Students learned from one of two videos (16 min): either a neutral video that followed cognitive design principles or an emotional-designed video that was based on the neutral video but enriched with emotional design elements (e.g., personalized frame story, warm colours, and tender voice). In line with our hypothesis, the emotional design led to triggered situational interest, leading to a higher maintained situational interest, which in turn fostered performance in the third (final) study phase but not in the two previous ones. Our results suggest that emotional design's positive effects are detectable especially (or only) during prolonged study situations in which motivational factors may play a more critical role. This study thus provides a potential explanation for mixed effects from previous research in this study field.

Previous research has shown that explaining is an effective activity to enhance learning. In prior studies, students were instructed to explain the contents after completing an entire learning phase. Explaining at the end of a learning phase, however, may be less apt to support comprehension monitoring and subsequent regulation activities. In 2 experiments, we investigated whether explaining in earlier phases of studying (i.e., in-between explaining) would foster learning more than explaining after the entire study phase (i.e., afterstudy explaining). In Experiment 1, university students (N = 91) read a text about combustion engines and either explained the contents between the study phases or at the end of the entire study phase. A third group recalled the learning contents aloud at the end of the study phase to control for retrieval-processes that may also be involved in explaining. Results showed no overall effect of explaining in comparison to retrieval practice. However, in-between explaining enhanced students' conceptual knowledge as compared with afterstudy explaining. Verbal protocol analyses showed that this effect was due to students' increased monitoring. Experiment 2 (N = 126), had a 2 × 2-factorial design with between-subjects factors timing (in-between vs. afterstudy) and learning activity (explaining vs. written retrieval practice). We found a cascaded trend: In-between learning activities were more effective than afterstudy learning activities, whereas explaining was more effective than written retrieval practice. These findings suggest that the timing of learning activities is crucial to improve learning. Additionally, our findings reveal that explaining is not simply a result of retrieval practice.

Example-based learning often uses a design in which learners first receive basic instructional explanations of new principles and concepts and then examples thereof. In this sequence, it is crucial that learners self-explain by using the content of the basic instructional explanations to elaborate on the examples. Typically, learners are not provided with access to the basic instructional explanations while they engage in self-explaining. However, it is reasonable to assume that this established design is suboptimal to some extent. When learners cannot retrieve the required knowledge components of the instructional explanations from memory, they can hardly generate the crucial self-explanations. Against this background, we analyzed the effects of a potential remedy for this suboptimality. Specifically, in 2 experiments with high school students we tested the effects of providing learners with constrained access to the basic instructional explanations while they engaged in self-explaining. The constraints were that learners were instructed to review the instructional explanations only when they could not remember certain required knowledge components or when they needed to check their self-explanations. We found that the effects of the constrained review option depended on learners' academic self-concept. Learners with low academic self-concepts benefitted from the review option, whereas learners with high academic self-concepts were even hindered by it. We conclude that the constrained review option should not be provided to learners with high academic self-concepts. On a more general level, we furthermore conclude that a high academic self-concept can be an obstacle rather than a beneficial resource in certain learning settings.

Worked examples support learning. However, if they introduce easy-to-confuse concepts or principles, specific ways of providing worked examples may influence their effectiveness. Multiple worked examples can be introduced blocked (i.e., several for the same principle) or interleaved (i.e., switching between principles), and can be sequentially or simultaneously presented. Crossing these two factors provides four ways of presenting worked examples: blocked/sequential, interleaved/sequential, blocked/simultaneous, and interleaved/simultaneous. In an experiment with university students (N = 174), we investigated how these two factors influence the acquisition of procedural and conceptual knowledge about different, but closely related (thus, easy-to-confuse) stochastic principles. Additionally, we assessed the ability of students to discriminate between principles with verification tasks. Simultaneous presentation benefitted procedural knowledge whereas, interleaved presentation benefitted conceptual knowledge. No significant differences were found for verification tasks. The results suggest that it is worthwhile to adapt the presentation of the worked examples to the learning goals.

Classroom videos are a viable means to implement evidence-informed reasoning in teacher education in order to establish an evidence-informed teaching practice. Although learning with videos relieves pre-service teachers from acting in parallel and might reduce complexity, the material still poses higher cognitive load than written text vignettes or other traditionally used static material. In particular, the information they deliver is transient and can, therefore, easily be missed. Signaling can guide learners’ attention to central aspects of a video, thereby reducing cognitive load and enhancing learning outcomes. In the current project, pre-service teachers acquired scientific knowledge about learning strategies and their promotion in a computer-based learning environment. We explored the effect of different arrangements of signaling in classroom video-examples on conceptual knowledge and the reasoning-component of professional vision. Therefore, we conducted a set of two studies with 100 student teachers including two signal arrangements in order to investigate how signaling can help learning to reason about classroom videos. In addition, we varied if participants received information on the use of signals in advance (informed) or not (uninformed). We measured conceptual knowledge by asking participants what they knew about self-regulation strategies. Additionally, we assessed reasoning by asking participants to notice sequences in a video where teachers induced learning strategies, and to reason in what respect the observed behavior was useful to induce the strategy. Uninformed signaling did not affect the acquisition of conceptual knowledge and reasoning. Informed signaling led to significantly better conceptual knowledge than uninformed signaling. It is argued that the signal-induced extraneous load exceeded the load reduction due to the signal’s selection advantage in the uninformed conditions. In a third, exploratory study, nine participants were interviewed on the perception of different signals and indicated that spotlight and zoom-in signals foster processing of classroom videos.

IntroductionUniversity students should be able to self-regulate their learning to gain the most from their studies. Extended self-regulated-learning trainings can help students to reach that goal. A frequent problem of such trainings is that students’ motivation decreases over the course of training. To avoid this decrease, we combined a learning-journal-based, self-regulated-learning training with a learning environment teaching conditional knowledge about learning strategies, a guided peer-feedback system, and an optional intervention for students reporting low levels of motivation from the start of the semester.Methods and ResultsFour motivational variables were repeatedly measured over the course of 10 weeks. Students (N = 103) in our training showed an increase in their self-efficacy and intrinsic value, and a decrease in cost associated with learning-journal-writing throughout the semester. The optional intervention led to an increase in the intrinsic value associated with the learning journals for students with low motivation.DiscussionOur study suggests that this expanded self-regulated-learning training can help students maintain their motivation during a long-term training.

Video cases are commonly used in teacher education to support evidence-based professional knowledge acquisition. Novice teachers, however, often struggle when learning with video, since they lack professional knowledge schemata that facilitate noticing and reasoning about relevant events. Scripted video case development provides an approach to make relevant events more salient and visible. In alignment with previously reported approaches, we applied relevant design steps and quality criteria within the presented project to promote use in further research. Thereby, we introduce the novel approach of using mock-up settings as a way to identify naturalistic behavior as a basis for script development. User experience (UX) evaluations based on defined quality criteria of realistic experiences (i.e., authenticity), personal relevance (i.e., utility value), engagement (i.e., situational interest), and challenge (i.e., cognitive load) were carried out in a set of four studies including N = 423 teacher students. Findings support the conclusion that our design approach resulted in the development of high-quality scripted video cases for further use in initial teacher education.