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Spatial information and dynamic locomotor behaviours are equally important for achieving locomotor goals during spatial navigation. However, it remains unclear how spatial and locomotor information is integrated during the processing of self‐initiated spatial navigation. Anatomically, the retrosplenial cortex (RSC) has reciprocal connections with brain regions related to spatial processing, including the hippocampus and para‐hippocampus, and also receives inputs from the secondary motor cortex. In addition, RSC is functionally associated with allocentric and egocentric spatial targets and head‐turning. So, RSC may be a critical region for integrating spatial and locomotor information. In this study, we first examined the role of RSC in spatial navigation using the Morris water maze and found that mice with inactivated RSC took a longer time and distance to reach their destination. Then, by imaging neuronal activity in freely behaving mice within two open fields of different sizes, we identified a large proportion of border cells, head‐turning cells and locomotor speed cells in the superficial layer of RSC. Interestingly, some RSC neurons exhibited conjunctive coding for both spatial and locomotor signals. Furthermore, these conjunctive neurons showed higher prediction accuracy compared with simple spatial or locomotor neurons in special navigator scenes using the border, turning and positive‐speed conjunctive cells. Our study reveals that the RSC is an important conjunctive brain region that processes spatial and locomotor information during spatial navigation. Key points: Retrosplenial cortex (RSC) is indispensable during spatial navigation, which was displayed by the longer time and distance of mice to reach their destination after the inactivation of RSC in a water maze.The superficial layer of RSC has a larger population of spatial‐related border cells, and locomotion‐related head orientation and speed cells; however, it has few place cells in two‐dimensional spatial arenas.Some RSC neurons exhibited conjunctive coding for both spatial and locomotor signals, and the conjunctive neurons showed higher prediction accuracy compared with simple spatial or locomotor neurons in special navigation scenes.Our study reveals that the RSC is an important conjunctive brain region that processes both spatial and locomotor information during spatial navigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Navigational abilities decline with age, but the cognitive underpinnings of this cognitive decline remain partially understood. Navigation is guided by landmarks and self-motion cues, that we address when estimating our location. These sources of spatial information are often associated with noise and uncertainty, thus posing a challenge during navigation. To overcome this challenge, humans and other species rely on navigational cues according to their reliability: reliable cues are highly weighted and therefore strongly influence our spatial behavior, compared to less reliable ones. We hypothesize that older adults do not efficiently weigh spatial cues, and accordingly, the reliability levels of navigational cues may not modulate their spatial behavior, as with younger adults. To test this, younger and older adults performed a virtual navigational task, subject to modified reliability of landmarks and self-motion cues. The findings revealed that while increased reliability of spatial cues improved navigational performance across both age groups, older adults exhibited diminished sensitivity to changes in landmark reliability. The findings demonstrate a cognitive mechanism that could lead to impaired navigation abilities in older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Architectural singularity belongs to the Type II singularity, in which a parallel manipulator (PM) gains one or more degrees of freedom and becomes uncontrollable. PMs remaining permanently in a singularity are beneficial for linear-to-rotary motion conversion. Griffis-Duffy (GD) platform is a mobile structure admitting a Bricard motion. In this paper, we present a coordinate-free approach to the design of generalized GD platforms, which consists in determining the shape and attachment of both the moving platform and the fixed base. The generalized GD platform is treated as a combination of six coaxial single-loop mechanisms under the same constraints. Owing to the inversion, hidden in the geometric structure of these single-loop mechanisms, the mapping from a line to a circle establishes the geometric transformation between the fixed base and the moving platform based on the center of inversion, and describes the shape and attachment of the generalized GD platform. Moreover, the center of inversion not only identifies the location of rotation axis, but also affects the shape of the platform mechanism. A graphical construction of generalized GD platforms using inversion, proposed in the paper, provides geometrically feasible solutions of the manipulator design for the requirement of the location of rotation axis.

Architectural singularity belongs to the Type II singularity, in which a parallel manipulator (PM) gains one or more degrees of freedom and becomes uncontrollable. PMs remaining permanently in a singularity are beneficial for linear-to-rotary motion conversion. Griffis-Duffy (GD) platform is a mobile structure admitting a Bricard motion. In this paper, we present a coordinate-free approach to the design of generalized GD platforms, which consists in determining the shape and attachment of both the moving platform and the fixed base. The generalized GD platform is treated as a combination of six coaxial single-loop mechanisms under the same constraints. Owing to the inversion, hidden in the geometric structure of these single-loop mechanisms, the mapping from a line to a circle establishes the geometric transformation between the fixed base and the moving platform based on the center of inversion, and describes the shape and attachment of the generalized GD platform. Moreover, the center of inversion not only identifies the location of rotation axis, but also affects the shape of the platform mechanism. A graphical construction of generalized GD platforms using inversion, proposed in the paper, provides geometrically feasible solutions of the manipulator design for the requirement of the location of rotation axis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I examine Aristotle's position on the theory of the soul as a self-moving entity in the light of a less negative conception of his discussion with his predecessors. For this purpose, I discuss the hypothesis according to which Aristotle is producing the concepts necessary for his own research through a critique of Plato's claims. I show that, more than a criticism, what we are witnessing is a process of conceptual appropriation where Aristotle filters an opinion to make a better use of it. I support my argument by showing how Aristotle's exegetical device works and how it could be connected to his own definitional procedures in De Anima's book II. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keeping visual space constant across movements of the eye and head is a not yet fully understood feature of perception. To understand the mechanisms that update the internal coordinates of space, research has mostly focused on eye movements. However, in natural vision, head movements are an integral part of gaze shifts that enlarge the field of vision. Here, we directly compared spatial updating for eye and head movements. In a virtual reality environment, participants had to localize the position of a stimulus across the execution of a gaze shift. We found that performing head movements increased the accuracy of spatial localization. By manipulating the speed of the visual scene displacement that a head movement produced, we found that spatial updating takes into account the sensorimotor contingencies of vision. When we presented gaze-contingent visual motion, subjects overestimated the position of stimuli presented across gaze shifts. The overestimation decreased if subjects were allowed to perform eye movements during the head movement. We conclude that head movements contribute to stabilizing visual space across gaze shifts and that contingencies of head movements, rather than being cancelled, facilitate the updating.

The sensation of self-motion in the absence of physical motion, known as vection, has been scientifically investigated for over a century. As objective measures of, or physiological correlates to, vection have yet to emerge, researchers have typically employed a variety of subjective methods to quantify the phenomenon of vection. These measures can be broadly categorized into the occurrence of vection (e.g., binary choice yes/no), temporal characteristics of vection (e.g., onset time/latency, duration), the quality of the vection experience (e.g., intensity rating scales, magnitude estimation), or indirect (e.g., distance travelled) measures. The present review provides an overview and critical evaluation of the most utilized vection measures to date and assesses their respective merit. Furthermore, recommendations for the selection of the most appropriate vection measures will be provided to assist with the process of vection research and to help improve the comparability of research findings across different vection studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The motion of a camphor boat on the water's surface is a long-studied example of the direct transformation of chemical energy into a mechanical one. Recent experimental papers have reported a complex character of boat motion depending on the location of the camphor source. If the source is close to the stern, the boat moves at a constant speed. When it is shifted towards the boat center, oscillations of speed are observed. When the source is close to the boat center, pulses of speed followed by oscillations appear. Here, we focus on numerical simulations of camphor boat motion. We discuss approximations that allow us to reduce the numerical complexity of the problem and formulate a model in which the equation for boat velocity is coupled with a one-dimensional reaction–diffusion equation for camphor surface concentration. We scanned the phase space of model parameters and found the values that give qualitative agreement with the experiments. The model predicts all types of boat motion (continuous, oscillating, and pulsating) observed in experiments. Moreover, the model with selected parameter values shows that for specific locations of the camphor source, a spike in speed is followed by transient oscillations, which are an inherent part of speed relaxation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vection is typically defined as the embodied illusion of self-motion in the absence of real physical movement through space. Vection can occur in real-life situations (e.g., 'train illusion') and in virtual environments and simulators. The vast majority of vection research focuses on vection caused by visual stimulation. Even though visually induced vection is arguably the most compelling type of vection, the role of nonvisual sensory inputs, such as auditory, biomechanical, tactile, and vestibular cues, have recently gained more attention. Non-visual cues can play an important role in inducing vection in two ways. First, nonvisual cues can affect the occurrence and strength of vection when added to corresponding visual information. Second, nonvisual cues can also elicit vection in the absence of visual information, for instance when observers are blindfolded or tested in darkness. The present paper provides a narrative review of the literature on multimodal contributions to vection. We will discuss both the theoretical and applied relevance of multisensory processing as related to the experience of vection and provide design considerations on how to enhance vection in various contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Head movement relative to the stationary environment gives rise to congruent vestibular and visual optic-flow signals. The resulting perception of a stationary visual environment, referred to herein as stationarity perception, depends on mechanisms that compare visual and vestibular signals to evaluate their congruence. Here we investigate the functioning of these mechanisms and their dependence on fixation behavior as well as on the active versus passive nature of the head movement. Stationarity perception was measured by modifying the gain on visual motion relative to head movement on individual trials and asking subjects to report whether the gain was too low or too high. Fitting a psychometric function to the data yields two key parameters of performance. The mean is a measure of accuracy, and the standard deviation is a measure of precision. Experiments were conducted using a head-mounted display with fixation behavior monitored by an embedded eye tracker. During active conditions, subjects rotated their heads in yaw ∼15 deg/s over ∼1 s. Each subject's movements were recorded and played back via rotating chair during the passive condition. During head-fixed and scene-fixed fixation the fixation target moved with the head or scene, respectively. Both precision and accuracy were better during active than passive head movement, likely due to increased precision on the head movement estimate arising from motor prediction and neck proprioception. Performance was also better during scene-fixed than head-fixed fixation, perhaps due to decreased velocity of retinal image motion and increased precision on the retinal image motion estimate. These results reveal how the nature of head and eye movements mediate encoding, processing, and comparison of relevant sensory and motor signals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To maintain stable and coherent perception in an ever-changing environment, the brain needs to continuously and dynamically calibrate information from multiple sensory sources, using sensory and non-sensory information in a flexible manner. Here, we review how the vestibular and visual signals are recalibrated during self-motion perception. We illustrate two different types of recalibration: one long-term cross-modal (visual–vestibular) recalibration concerning how multisensory cues recalibrate over time in response to a constant cue discrepancy, and one rapid-term cross-modal (visual–vestibular) recalibration concerning how recent prior stimuli and choices differentially affect subsequent self-motion decisions. In addition, we highlight the neural substrates of long-term visual–vestibular recalibration, with profound differences observed in neuronal recalibration across multisensory cortical areas. We suggest that multisensory recalibration is a complex process in the brain, is modulated by many factors, and requires the coordination of many distinct cortical areas. We hope this review will shed some light on research into the neural circuits of visual–vestibular recalibration and help develop a more generalized theory for cross-modal plasticity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well recognized that the vestibular system is involved in numerous important cognitive functions, including self-motion perception, spatial orientation, locomotion, and vector-based navigation, in addition to basic reflexes, such as oculomotor or body postural control. Consistent with this rationale, vestibular signals exist broadly in the brain, including several regions of the cerebral cortex, potentially allowing tight coordination with other sensory systems to improve the accuracy and precision of perception or action during self-motion. Recent neurophysiological studies in animal models based on single-cell resolution indicate that vestibular signals exhibit complex spatiotemporal dynamics, producing challenges in identifying their exact functions and how they are integrated with other modality signals. For example, vestibular and optic flow could provide congruent and incongruent signals regarding spatial tuning functions, reference frames, and temporal dynamics. Comprehensive studies, including behavioral tasks, neural recording across sensory and sensory-motor association areas, and causal link manipulations, have provided some insights into the neural mechanisms underlying multisensory self-motion perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A key computation in building adaptive internal models of the external world is to ascribe sensory signals to their likely cause(s), a process of causal inference (CI). CI is well studied within the framework of two-alternative forced-choice tasks, but less well understood within the cadre of naturalistic action–perception loops. Here, we examine the process of disambiguating retinal motion caused by self- and/or object-motion during closed-loop navigation. First, we derive a normative account specifying how observers ought to intercept hidden and moving targets given their belief about (i) whether retinal motion was caused by the target moving, and (ii) if so, with what velocity. Next, in line with the modelling results, we show that humans report targets as stationary and steer towards their initial rather than final position more often when they are themselves moving, suggesting a putative misattribution of object-motion to the self. Further, we predict that observers should misattribute retinal motion more often: (i) during passive rather than active self-motion (given the lack of an efference copy informing self-motion estimates in the former), and (ii) when targets are presented eccentrically rather than centrally (given that lateral self-motion flow vectors are larger at eccentric locations during forward self-motion). Results support both of these predictions. Lastly, analysis of eye movements show that, while initial saccades toward targets were largely accurate regardless of the self-motion condition, subsequent gaze pursuit was modulated by target velocity during object-only motion, but not during concurrent object- and self-motion. These results demonstrate CI within action–perception loops, and suggest a protracted temporal unfolding of the computations characterizing CI. This article is part of the theme issue 'Decision and control processes in multisensory perception'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating noisy signals across time as well as sensory modalities, a process named multi-sensory decision making (MSDM), is an essential strategy for making more accurate and sensitive decisions in complex environments. Although this field is just emerging, recent extraordinary works from different perspectives, including computational theory, psychophysical behaviour and neurophysiology, begin to shed new light onto MSDM. In the current review, we focus on MSDM by using a model system of visuo-vestibular heading. Combining well-controlled behavioural paradigms on virtual-reality systems, single-unit recordings, causal manipulations and computational theory based on spiking activity, recent progress reveals that vestibular signals contain complex temporal dynamics in many brain regions, including unisensory, multi-sensory and sensory-motor association areas. This challenges the brain for cue integration across time and sensory modality such as optic flow which mainly contains a motion velocity signal. In addition, new evidence from the higher-level decision-related areas, mostly in the posterior and frontal/prefrontal regions, helps revise our conventional thought on how signals from different sensory modalities may be processed, converged, and moment-by-moment accumulated through neural circuits for forming a unified, optimal perceptual decision. This article is part of the theme issue 'Decision and control processes in multisensory perception'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite increasing evidence of its involvement in several key functions of the cerebral cortex, the vestibular sense rarely enters our consciousness. Indeed, the extent to which these internal signals are incorporated within cortical sensory representation and how they might be relied upon for sensory-driven decision-making, during, for example, spatial navigation, is yet to be understood. Recent novel experimental approaches in rodents have probed both the physiological and behavioral significance of vestibular signals and indicate that their widespread integration with vision improves both the cortical representation and perceptual accuracy of self-motion and orientation. Here, we summarize these recent findings with a focus on cortical circuits involved in visual perception and spatial navigation and highlight the major remaining knowledge gaps. We suggest that vestibulo-visual integration reflects a process of constant updating regarding the status of self-motion, and access to such information by the cortex is used for sensory perception and predictions that may be implemented for rapid, navigation-related decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The observers use the optic flow to control self-motion. However, the current state of knowledge indicates that it is difficult to understand how optic flow is used by the visual system without a direct measurement of the changes in the flow patterns caused by eye movements during natural behaviour. The purpose of this literature review is to highlight the importance of the integration between optic flow and eye movements for postural control. Methods: A literature review of the electronic papers through July 2022 was independently performed by three investigators. The selection of the studies was made by a search on PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar with two groups of selected keywords. We excluded papers performed on subjects with pathologies, children, and the elderly. Results: The results of this literature analysis highlight that eye movements are required to drive visual motion processing and heading perception in both static and dynamic contexts. Conclusion: Although we now know many neural mechanisms that process heading direction from the optic flow field, a consideration of optic flow patterns relative to gaze direction provides more detailed information on how the retinal flow field is used to control body balance. Doi: 10.28991/ESJ-2022-06-06-020 Full Text: PDF

The review of the literature data is devoted to the integration of vestibular, visual, and proprioceptive inputs in various areas of the cerebral cortex in humans and monkeys during movement control. Despite the abundance of studies of numerous areas of the cortex with vestibular and sensorimotor inputs, their functions and connections are insufficiently studied and understood. The review provides a relatively detailed analysis of data from recent studies of three areas of the cortex involved in motion control: the posterior parietal area 7a, in which responses to a combined visual-vestibular stimulus had a tendency for the vestibular input to dominate over the visual one; the cingulate sulcus visual area, which presumably integrates not only visual and vestibular afferent signals, but also proprioceptive signals from the lower limbs, thereby providing interaction between the sensory and motor systems during locomotion; and the area of the superior parietal lobule, in which the visual and somatic inputs interact allowing behavior control when reaching and grasping an object. It is concluded that it is necessary to combine complex natural tasks with normative behavioral models in future research in order to understand how the brain converts sensory input data into a behavioral format. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The ability to accurately encode events' duration is of critical importance for almost all everyday activities, yet numerous factors have been reported to robustly distort time perception. One of these is physical activity (i.e., running, walking) but, partly due to the variety of methodologies employed, a full comprehension of the role of exercise on the encoding of time has still to be achieved. Methods: Here we tackle the issue with a multifaceted approach by measuring the effect of vigorous running with a time generalization task for visual and auditory stimuli in the range of milliseconds (0.2-0.8 s) as well as seconds (1-4 s). At baseline, participants performed both the encoding and decoding at rest while in the experimental conditions the decoding was performed while running. Results: Our results indicate that physical activity in both duration ranges (subsecond and seconds) was expanded during running regardless of the sensory modality used to present the stimuli. Despite this generalized effect of running on perceived duration, we found evidence for the existence of independent timing mechanisms: (1) the perceptual biases induced by running in the two temporal regimes were uncorrelated, (2) sensory precision levels (Weber fraction) were higher for stimuli in the seconds range, (3) sensory precision levels were higher for auditory than for visual stimuli, but only within the sub-second range. Discussion: Overall, our results support previous findings suggesting (at least partially) separate timing mechanisms for short/long durations and for visual and auditory stimuli. However, they also indicate that physical activity affects all these temporal modules, suggesting a generalized interaction--via generalized and shared resources--between the motor system and the brain time mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The motion of a camphor boat on the water’s surface is a long-studied example of the direct transformation of chemical energy into a mechanical one. Recent experimental papers have reported a complex character of boat motion depending on the location of the camphor source. If the source is close to the stern, the boat moves at a constant speed. When it is shifted towards the boat center, oscillations of speed are observed. When the source is close to the boat center, pulses of speed followed by oscillations appear. Here, we focus on numerical simulations of camphor boat motion. We discuss approximations that allow us to reduce the numerical complexity of the problem and formulate a model in which the equation for boat velocity is coupled with a one-dimensional reaction–diffusion equation for camphor surface concentration. We scanned the phase space of model parameters and found the values that give qualitative agreement with the experiments. The model predicts all types of boat motion (continuous, oscillating, and pulsating) observed in experiments. Moreover, the model with selected parameter values shows that for specific locations of the camphor source, a spike in speed is followed by transient oscillations, which are an inherent part of speed relaxation.

IntroductionThe ability to accurately encode events’ duration is of critical importance for almost all everyday activities, yet numerous factors have been reported to robustly distort time perception. One of these is physical activity (i.e., running, walking) but, partly due to the variety of methodologies employed, a full comprehension of the role of exercise on the encoding of time has still to be achieved.MethodsHere we tackle the issue with a multifaceted approach by measuring the effect of vigorous running with a time generalization task for visual and auditory stimuli in the range of milliseconds (0.2–0.8 s) as well as seconds (1–4 s). At baseline, participants performed both the encoding and decoding at rest while in the experimental conditions the decoding was performed while running.ResultsOur results indicate that physical activity in both duration ranges (sub-second and seconds) was expanded during running regardless of the sensory modality used to present the stimuli. Despite this generalized effect of running on perceived duration, we found evidence for the existence of independent timing mechanisms: (1) the perceptual biases induced by running in the two temporal regimes were uncorrelated, (2) sensory precision levels (Weber fraction) were higher for stimuli in the seconds range, (3) sensory precision levels were higher for auditory than for visual stimuli, but only within the sub-second range.DiscussionOverall, our results support previous findings suggesting (at least partially) separate timing mechanisms for short/long durations and for visual and auditory stimuli. However, they also indicate that physical activity affects all these temporal modules, suggesting a generalized interaction—via generalized and shared resources—between the motor system and the brain time mechanisms.

The adult brain demonstrates remarkable multisensory plasticity by dynamically recalibrating itself based on information from multiple sensory sources. After a systematic visual–vestibular heading offset is experienced, the unisensory perceptual estimates for subsequently presented stimuli are shifted toward each other (in opposite directions) to reduce the conflict. The neural substrate of this recalibration is unknown. Here, we recorded single-neuron activity from the dorsal medial superior temporal (MSTd), parietoinsular vestibular cortex (PIVC), and ventral intraparietal (VIP) areas in three male rhesus macaques during this visual–vestibular recalibration. Both visual and vestibular neuronal tuning curves in MSTd shifted – each according to their respective cues’ perceptual shifts. Tuning of vestibular neurons in PIVC also shifted in the same direction as vestibular perceptual shifts (cells were not robustly tuned to the visual stimuli). By contrast, VIP neurons demonstrated a unique phenomenon: both vestibular and visual tuning shifted in accordance with vestibular perceptual shifts. Such that, visual tuning shifted, surprisingly, contrary to visual perceptual shifts. Therefore, while unsupervised recalibration (to reduce cue conflict) occurs in early multisensory cortices, higher-level VIP reflects only a global shift, in vestibular space.

Human observers are capable of perceiving the motion of moving objects relative to the stationary world, even while undergoing self-motion. Perceiving world-relative object motion is complicated because the local optical motion of objects is influenced by both observer and object motion, and reflects object motion in observer coordinates. It has been proposed that observers recover world-relative object motion using global optic flow to factor out the influence of self-motion. However, object-motion judgments during simulated self-motion are biased, as if the visual system cannot completely compensate for the influence of self-motion. Recently, Xie et al. demonstrated that humans are capable of accurately judging world-relative object motion when self-motion is real, actively generated by walking, and accompanied by optic flow. However, the conditions used in that study differ from those found in the real world in that the moving object was a small dot with negligible optical expansion that moved at a fixed speed in retinal (rather than world) coordinates and was only visible for 500 ms. The present study investigated the accuracy of object motion perception under more ecologically valid conditions. Subjects judged the trajectory of an object that moved through a virtual environment viewed through a head-mounted display. Judgments exhibited bias in the case of simulated self-motion but were accurate when self-motion was real, actively generated, and accompanied by optic flow. The findings are largely consistent with the conclusions of Xie et al. and demonstrate that observers are capable of accurately perceiving worldrelative object motion under ecologically valid conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate perception of verticality is critical for postural maintenance and successful physical interaction with the world. Although previous research has examined the independent influences of body orientation and self-motion under well-controlled laboratory conditions, these factors are constantly changing and interacting in the real world. In this study, we examine the subjective haptic vertical in a real-world scenario. Here, we report a bias of verticality perception in a field experiment on the Hong Kong Peak Tram as participants traveled on a slope ranging from 6° to 26°. Mean subjective haptic vertical (SHV) increased with slope by as much as 15°, regardless of whether the eyes were open (Experiment 1) or closed (Experiment 2). Shifting the body pitch by a fixed degree in an effort to compensate for the mountain slope failed to reduce the verticality bias (Experiment 3). These manipulations separately rule out visual and vestibular inputs about absolute body pitch as contributors to our observed bias. Observations collected on a tram traveling on level ground (Experiment 4A) or in a static dental chair with a range of inclinations similar to those encountered on the mountain tram (Experiment 4B) showed no significant deviation of the subjective vertical from gravity. We conclude that the SHV error is due to a combination of large, dynamic body pitch and translational motion. These observations made in a real-world scenario represent an incentive to neuroscientists and aviation experts alike for studying perceived verticality under field conditions and raising awareness of dangerous misperceptions of verticality when body pitch and translational self-motion come together. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our primary objective was to assess consistent activation and deactivation among healthy participants and patients reporting vertigo. Our secondary aim was to evaluate the influence of the stimulus and the direction of the perception of self-motion We realized a systematic review with an extensive data visualization. We included neuroimaging studies (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging [fMRI], positron emission tomography [PET] or near infrared spectroscopy [NIRS]) that have measured functional activity in human adults reporting vertigo and/or dizziness. We included 21 studies (n = 336 participants), ~ 64% male, age ranging from 18 to 80.5 years. The different stimuli used to induce vertigo: caloric stimulation, galvanic stimulation, visual stimulation or vibratory stimulus on neck muscles. We found a consistent activation of the insular cortex, inferior parietal lobule, putamen, cerebellum, anterior cingulate cortex, precentral gyrus, superior temporal gyrus and thalamus. Cortical and subcortical activation seems to have a contralateral pattern to the perception of self-movement. We found a deactivation pattern of structures related to the ventral and third visual pathway. Vertigo is an unpleasant and subjective experience which involves multiple vestibular and non-specific networks with the involvement of a cortico–basal ganglia– cerebellar–thalamic network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the major functions of our brain is to process spatial information and to make this information available to our motor systems to interact successfully with the environment. Numerous studies over the past decades and even centuries have investigated, how our central nervous system deals with this challenge. Spatial information can be derived from vision. We see, where the cup of coffee stands at the breakfast table or where the un-mute-button of our video-conference tool is. However, this is always just a snapshot, because the location of the projection of the cup or the un-mute-button shifts across the retina by each eye movement, i.e., 2–3 times per second. So, where exactly in space are objects located? And what signals guide self-motion and navigation through our environment? While also other sensory signals (vestibular, tactile, auditory, even smell) can help us localize objects in space and guide our navigation, here, we will focus on the dominant sense in primates: vision. We will review (i) how visual information is processed to eventually result in space perception, (ii) how this perception is modulated by action, especially eye movements, at the behavioral and at the neural level, and (iii) how spatial representations relate to other encodings of magnitude, i.e., time and number. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human middle-temporal region MT+ is highly specialized in processing visual motion. However, recent studies have shown that this region is modulated by extraretinal signals, suggesting a possible involvement in processing motion information also from non-visual modalities. Here, we used functional MRI data to investigate the influence of retinal and extraretinal signals on MT+ in a large sample of subjects. Moreover, we used resting-state functional MRI to assess how the subdivisions of MT+ (i.e., MST, FST, MT, and V4t) are functionally connected. We first compared responses in MST, FST, MT, and V4t to coherent vs. random visual motion. We found that only MST and FST were positively activated by coherent motion. Furthermore, regional analyses revealed that MST and FST were positively activated by leg, but not arm, movements, while MT and V4t were deactivated by arm, but not leg, movements. Taken together, regional analyses revealed a visuomotor role for the anterior areas MST and FST and a pure visual role for the anterior areas MT and V4t. These findings were mirrored by the pattern of functional connections between these areas and the rest of the brain. Visual and visuomotor regions showed distinct patterns of functional connectivity, with the latter preferentially connected with the somatosensory and motor areas representing leg and foot. Overall, these findings reveal a functional sensitivity for coherent visual motion and lower-limb movements in MST and FST, suggesting their possible involvement in integrating sensory and motor information to perform locomotion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-motion through an environment induces various sensory signals, i.e., visual, vestibular, auditory, or tactile. Numerous studies have investigated the role of visual and vestibular stimulation for the perception of self-motion direction (heading). Here, we investigated the rarely considered interaction of visual and tactile stimuli in heading perception. Participants were presented optic flow simulating forward self-motion across a horizontal ground plane (visual), airflow toward the participants' forehead (tactile), or both. In separate blocks of trials, participants indicated perceived heading from unimodal visual or tactile or bimodal sensory signals. In bimodal trials, presented headings were either spatially congruent or incongruent with a maximum offset between visual and tactile heading of 30°. To investigate the reference frame in which visuo-tactile heading is encoded, we varied head and eye orientation during presentation of the stimuli. Visual and tactile stimuli were designed to achieve comparable precision of heading reports between modalities. Nevertheless, in bimodal trials heading perception was dominated by the visual stimulus. A change of head orientation had no significant effect on perceived heading, whereas, surprisingly, a change in eye orientation affected tactile heading perception. Overall, we conclude that tactile flow is more important to heading perception than previously thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To maintain stable and coherent perception in an ever-changing environment, the brain needs to continuously and dynamically calibrate information from multiple sensory sources, using sensory and non-sensory information in a flexible manner. Here, we review how the vestibular and visual signals are recalibrated during self-motion perception. We illustrate two different types of recalibration: one long-term cross-modal (visual–vestibular) recalibration concerning how multisensory cues recalibrate over time in response to a constant cue discrepancy, and one rapid-term cross-modal (visual–vestibular) recalibration concerning how recent prior stimuli and choices differentially affect subsequent self-motion decisions. In addition, we highlight the neural substrates of long-term visual–vestibular recalibration, with profound differences observed in neuronal recalibration across multisensory cortical areas. We suggest that multisensory recalibration is a complex process in the brain, is modulated by many factors, and requires the coordination of many distinct cortical areas. We hope this review will shed some light on research into the neural circuits of visual–vestibular recalibration and help develop a more generalized theory for cross-modal plasticity.

Human observers are capable of perceiving the motion of moving objects relative to the stationary world, even while undergoing self-motion. Perceiving world-relative object motion is complicated because the local optical motion of objects is influenced by both observer and object motion, and reflects object motion in observer coordinates. It has been proposed that observers recover world-relative object motion using global optic flow to factor out the influence of self-motion. However, object-motion judgments during simulated self-motion are biased, as if the visual system cannot completely compensate for the influence of self-motion. Recently, Xie et al. demonstrated that humans are capable of accurately judging world-relative object motion when self-motion is real, actively generated by walking, and accompanied by optic flow. However, the conditions used in that study differ from those found in the real world in that the moving object was a small dot with negligible optical expansion that moved at a fixed speed in retinal (rather than world) coordinates and was only visible for 500 ms. The present study investigated the accuracy of object motion perception under more ecologically valid conditions. Subjects judged the trajectory of an object that moved through a virtual environment viewed through a head-mounted display. Judgments exhibited bias in the case of simulated self-motion but were accurate when self-motion was real, actively generated, and accompanied by optic flow. The findings are largely consistent with the conclusions of Xie et al. and demonstrate that observers are capable of accurately perceiving world-relative object motion under ecologically valid conditions.

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have made significant advances over the past decade with visual recognition, matching or exceeding human performance on certain tasks. Visual recognition is subserved by the ventral stream of the visual system, which, remarkably, CNNs also effectively model. Inspired by this connection, we investigated the extent to which CNNs account for human heading perception, an important function of the complementary dorsal stream. Heading refers to the direction of movement during self-motion, which humans judge with high degrees of accuracy from the streaming pattern of motion on the eye known as optic flow. We examined the accuracy with which CNNs estimate heading from optic flow in a range of situations in which human heading perception has been well studied. These scenarios include heading estimation from sparse optic flow, in the presence of moving objects, and in the presence of rotation. We assessed performance under controlled conditions wherein self-motion was simulated through minimal or realistic scenes. We found that the CNN did not capture the accuracy of heading perception. The addition of recurrent processing to the network, however, closed the gap in performance with humans substantially in many situations. Our work highlights important self-motion scenarios in which recurrent processing supports heading estimation that approaches human-like accuracy. • We characterized heading estimation in neural networks under controlled conditions. • Convolutional neural network did not account for human heading perception. • Addition of recurrent processing generally resulted in more human-like performance. • RNN performed better than CNN on sparse flow, moving objects, and realistic scenes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-motion perception (e.g., when walking/driving) relies on the integration of multiple sensory cues including visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive signals. Changes in the efficacy of multisensory integration have been observed in older adults (OA), which can sometimes lead to errors in perceptual judgments and have been associated with functional declines such as increased falls risk. The objectives of this study were to determine whether passive, visualvestibular self-motion heading perception could be improved by providing feedback during multisensory training, and whether training-related effects might be more apparent in OAs vs. younger adults (YA). We also investigated the extent to which training might transfer to improved standing-balance. OAs and YAs were passively translated and asked to judge their direction of heading relative to straight-ahead (left/right). Each participant completed three conditions: (1) vestibular-only (passive physical motion in the dark), (2) visual-only (cloud-of-dots display), and (3) bimodal (congruent vestibular and visual stimulation). Measures of heading precision and bias were obtained for each condition. Over the course of 3 days, participants were asked to make bimodal heading judgments and were provided with feedback ("correct"/"incorrect") on 900 training trials. Post-training, participants' biases, and precision in all three sensory conditions (vestibular, visual, bimodal), and their standing-balance performance, were assessed. Results demonstrated improved overall precision (i.e., reduced JNDs) in heading perception after training. Pre-vs. post-training difference scores showed that improvements in JNDs were only found in the visual-only condition. Particularly notable is that 27% of OAs initially could not discriminate their heading at all in the visual-only condition pre-training, but subsequently obtained thresholds in the visual-only condition post-training that were similar to those of the other participants. While OAs seemed to show optimal integration pre- and post-training (i.e., did not show significant differences between predicted and observed JNDs), YAs only showed optimal integration post-training. There were no significant effects of training for bimodal or vestibular-only heading estimates, nor standing-balance performance. These results indicate that it may be possible to improve unimodal (visual) heading perception using a multisensory (visual-vestibular) training paradigm. The results may also help to inform interventions targeting tasks for which effective self-motion perception is important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: People with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) have balance deficits while ambulating through environments that contain moving objects or visual manipulations to perceived self-motion. However, their ability to parse object from self-movement has not been explored. The purpose of this research was to examine the effect of medial-lateral oscillations of the visual field and of objects within the scene on gait in PwMS and healthy age-matched controls using virtual reality (VR).Methods: Fourteen PwMS (mean age 49 ± 11 years, functional gait assessment score of 27.8 ± 1.8, and Berg Balance scale score 54.7 ± 1.5) and eleven healthy controls (mean age: 53 ± 12 years) participated in this study. Dynamic balance control was assessed while participants walked on a treadmill at a self-selected speed while wearing a VR headset that projected an immersive forest scene. Visual conditions consisted of (1) no visual manipulations (speed-matched anterior/posterior optical flow), (2) 0.175 m mediolateral translational oscillations of the scene that consisted of low pairing (0.1 and 0.31 Hz) or (3) high pairing (0.15 and 0.465 Hz) frequencies, (4) 5 degree medial-lateral rotational oscillations of virtual trees at a low frequency pairing (0.1 and 0.31 Hz), and (5) a combination of the tree and scene movements in (3) and (4).Results: We found that both PwMS and controls exhibited greater instability and visuomotor entrainment to simulated mediolateral translation of the visual field (scene) during treadmill walking. This was demonstrated by significant (p < 0.05) increases in mean step width and variability and center of mass sway. Visuomotor entrainment was demonstrated by high coherence between center of mass sway and visual motion (magnitude square coherence = ~ 0.5 to 0.8). Only PwMS exhibited significantly greater instability (higher step width variability and center of mass sway) when objects moved within the scene (i.e., swaying trees).Conclusion: Results suggest the presence of visual motion processing errors in PwMS that reduced dynamic stability. Specifically, object motion (via tree sway) was not effectively parsed from the observer's self-motion. Identifying this distinction between visual object motion and self-motion detection in MS provides insight regarding stability control in environments with excessive external movement, such as those encountered in daily life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have shown that space perception around the body is altered by self-motion, and that several self-motion cues from different modalities, including vision, proprioception, the vestibular system, and the motor system (motor commands) contribute to it. However, studies on how online self-motion information affects the perception of a passable width of a narrow aperture is largely overlooked by existing literature. Therefore, this study investigated this issue during virtual bike riding. Participants observed a narrow doorway aperture with varied widths in a virtual environment through a head-mounted display while riding a stationary bike. Visual self-motion information was presented by optical flow, while motor commands and proprioceptive feedback (non-visual information) was provided by having participants pedal the bike. The participants were then required to judge whether the presented aperture was passable. Experiment 1, where both visual and non-visual cues were provided, confirmed that the perceived passable width significantly increased with increasing self-motion speed, as previously shown during walking. Experiment 2, where self-motion cues were manipulated, showed that expansion of the perceived passable width was mainly induced by visual self-motion information. These results suggest that online self-motion information can affect passable width perception during bike riding and that visual self-motion information plays a significant role in this perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The integration of information from different sensory modalities is crucial for successful navigation through an environment. Among others, self-motion induces distinct optic flow patterns on the retina, vestibular signals and tactile flow, which contribute to determine traveled distance (path integration) or movement direction (heading). While the processing of combined visual–vestibular information is subject to a growing body of literature, the processing of visuo-tactile signals in the context of self-motion has received comparatively little attention. Here, we investigated whether visual heading perception is influenced by behaviorally irrelevant tactile flow. In the visual modality, we simulated an observer's self-motion across a horizontal ground plane (optic flow). Tactile self-motion stimuli were delivered by air flow from head-mounted nozzles (tactile flow). In blocks of trials, we presented only visual or tactile stimuli and subjects had to report their perceived heading. In another block of trials, tactile and visual stimuli were presented simultaneously, with the tactile flow within ±40° of the visual heading (bimodal condition). Here, importantly, participants had to report their perceived visual heading. Perceived self-motion direction in all conditions revealed a centripetal bias, i.e., heading directions were perceived as compressed toward straight ahead. In the bimodal condition, we found a small but systematic influence of task-irrelevant tactile flow on visually perceived headings as function of their directional offset. We conclude that tactile flow is more tightly linked to self-motion perception than previously thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral studies have shown that humans account for inertial acceleration in their decisions of hand choice when reaching during body motion. Physiologically, it is unclear at what stage of movement preparation information about body motion is integrated with the process of hand selection. Here, we addressed this question by applying transcranial magnetic stimulation over left motor cortex (M1) of human participants who performed a preferential reach task while they were sinusoidally translated on a linear motion platform. If M1 only represents a read-out of the final hand choice, we expect the body motion not to affect the motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitude. If body motion biases the hand selection process before target onset, we expect corticospinal excitability to be influenced by the phase of the motion, with larger MEP amplitudes for phases that show a bias to using the right hand. Behavioral results replicate our earlier findings of a sinusoidal modulation of hand choice bias with motion phase. MEP amplitudes also show a sinusoidal modulation with motion phase, suggesting that body motion influences corticospinal excitability, which may ultimately reflect changes of hand preference. The modulation being present before target onset suggests that competition between hands is represented throughout the corticospinal tract. Its phase relationship with the motion profile indicates that other processes after target onset take up time until the hand selection process has been completely resolved, and the reach is initiated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Redundant manipulators are flexible enough to adapt to complex environments, but their controller is also required to be specific for their extra degrees of freedom. Inspired by the morphology of snakes, we propose a path planning algorithm named Swinging Search and Crawling Control, which allows the snake-like redundant manipulators to explore in complex pipeline environments without collision. The proposed algorithm consists of the Swinging Search and the Crawling Control. In Swinging Search, a collision-free manipulator configuration that of the end-effector in the target point is found by applying reinforcement learning to self-motion, instead of designing joint motion. The self-motion narrows the search space to the null space, and the reinforcement learning makes the algorithm use the information of the environment, instead of blindly searching. Then in Crawling Control, the manipulator is controlled to crawl to the target point like a snake along the collision-free configuration. It only needs to search for a collision-free configuration for the manipulator, instead of searching collision-free configurations throughout the process of path planning. Simulation experiments show that the algorithm can complete path planning tasks of hyper-redundant manipulators in complex environments. The 16 degrees of freedom and 24 degrees of freedom manipulators can achieve 83.3% and 96.7% success rates in the pipe, respectively. In the concentric pipe, the 24 degrees of freedom manipulator has a success rate of 96.1%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cybersickness describes the nausea and discomfort that frequently emerges upon exposure to a virtual reality (VR) environment. The extent to which cybersickness leads to temporary constraints in cognitive functioning after VR exposure is a critical aspect of evaluating the risk to human safety where VR tasks are used for workforce training. Here, we examined whether VR exposure results in deteriorated cognitive spatial ability and attention, and if this possible deterioration is related to cybersickness. A standardized cognitive test battery consisting of Corsi blocks task (CBT), Manikin spatial task (MST), and color trails test (CTT-A and -B) was administered before and after participants were exposed to virtual reality (VR group), or engaged in interactive board games (control group). The performance of participants in CBT remained unchanged from pre-test to post-test in both groups, while performance in MST improved in the control and remained stable in VR group. Response times in CTT-A remained stable in the VR group but reduced significantly in the control group. Regarding CTT-B, participants from both groups became significantly faster in post-test. We did not observe any significant sex differences, or effects of past VR experience, across measures of cognitive performance or cybersickness. Crucially, no significant correlations were found between cognitive performance changes and cybersickness scores in any cases. The results provide encouragement for the use of VR in professional settings, suggesting that VR and cybersickness may minimally limit subsequent cognitive processing. However, it will be crucial to further examine the aftereffects in other cognitive functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an effort to characterize the factors influencing the perception of self-motion rotational cues, vestibular self-motion perceptual thresholds were measured in 14 subjects for rotations in the roll and pitch planes, as well as in the planes aligned with the anatomic orientation of the vertical semicircular canals (i.e., left anterior, right posterior; LARP, and right anterior, left posterior; RALP). To determine the multisensory influence of concurrent otolith cues, within each plane of motion, thresholds were measured at four discrete frequencies for rotations about earth-horizontal (i.e., tilts; EH) and earth-vertical axes (i.e., head positioned in the plane of the rotation; EV). We found that the perception of rotations, stimulating primarily the vertical canals, was consistent with the behavior of a high-pass filter for all planes of motion, with velocity thresholds increasing at lower frequencies of rotation. In contrast, tilt (i.e, EH rotation) velocity thresholds, stimulating both the canals and otoliths (i.e., multisensory integration), decreased at lower frequencies and were significantly lower than earth-vertical rotation thresholds at each frequency below 2 Hz. These data suggest that multisensory integration of otolithic gravity cues with semicircular canal rotation cues enhances perceptual precision for tilt motions at frequencies below 2 Hz. We also showed that rotation thresholds, at least partially, were dependent on the orientation of the rotation plane relative to the anatomical alignment of the vertical canals. Collectively these data provide the first comprehensive report of how frequency and axis of rotation influence perception of rotational self-motion cues stimulating the vertical canals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Audio-visual scenes were collected in a medium-sized reverberant conference hall through in-field 3rd-order ambisonics impulse response recordings and 360-degree stereoscopic videos. The visual scenes included cues of the room and the location of the sound sources, without lip-sync-related cues. Speech intelligibility tests based on seven audio-visual scenes were administered inside an immersive virtual 3D environment reproduced through a spherical 16-speaker array synched with a head-mounted display. Forty normal-hearing subjects were engaged to test the effects on speech intelligibility of a talker in front of the listener and amplified by two lateral symmetrical loudspeakers, in the case of (i) different listener-to-talker distances, (ii) one-talker noise at various azimuth angles around the listener, (iii) high reverberation with –5 dB signal-to-noise ratio, (iv) self-motion, and (v) visual cues. We conducted tests in four configurations, that is, audio-visual and audio-only, both with self-motion and in the static condition. The static audio-only tests scored the highest speech intelligibility, followed by a tie between audio-visual with self-motion and in the static condition. Speech intelligibility decreased as the target-to-listener distance increased in all the noisy scenes. Additionally, speech intelligibility increased when the noise azimuth was at 120° compared to both 180° and 0° , with the talker at approximately 8 m from the listener. The advantage of the spatial separation of the noise signal in reverberation is evident in the case of the audio-visual with self-motion test. This suggests a spatial release from masking in the presence of reverberation, one-talker-interfering noise and within an more ecological scene. • Stay-still with audio-only scored the highest speech intelligibility. • Self-motion with audio-only scored the lowest speech intelligibility. • Self-motion did not improve speech intelligibility in the audio-visual condition. • A spatial release from masking in reverberation and one-talker noise was found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-motion perception refers to the ability to perceive how the body is moving through the environment. Perception of self-motion has been shown to depend upon the locomotor action patterns used to move the body through the environment. Two separate lines of enquiry have led to the establishment of two distinct theories regarding this effect. One theory has proposed that distances travelled during locomotion are perceived via higher order perceptual variables detected by the haptic perceptual system. This theory proposes that two higher order haptic perceptual variables exist, and that the implication of one of these variables depends upon the type of gait pattern that is used. A second theory proposes that self-motion is perceived via a higher order perceptual variable termed multimodally specified energy expenditure (MSEE). This theory proposes that the effect of locomotor actions patterns upon self-motion perception is related to changes in the metabolic cost of locomotion per unit of perceptually specified traversed distance. Here, we test the hypothesis that the development of these distinct theories is the result of different choices in methodology. The theory of gait type has been developed based largely on the results of homing tasks, whereas the effect of MSEE has been developed based on the results of distance matching tasks. Here we test the hypothesis that the seemly innocuous change in experimental design from using a homing task to using a distance matching task changes the type of perceptual variables implicated in self-motion perception. To test this hypothesis, we closely replicated a recent study of the effect of gait type in all details bar one—we investigated a distance matching task rather than a homing task. As hypothesized, this change yielded results consistent with the predictions of MSEE, and distinct from gait type. We further show that, unlike the effect of gait type, the effect of MSEE is unaffected by the availability of vision. In sum, our findings support the existence of two distinct types of higher order perceptual variables in self-motion perception. We discuss the roles of these two types of perceptual variables in supporting effective human wayfinding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When listening to a sound source in everyday situations, typical movement behavior is highly individual and may not result in the listener directly facing the sound source. Behavioral differences can affect the performance of directional algorithms in hearing aids, as was shown in previous work by using head movement trajectories of normal-hearing (NH) listeners in acoustic simulations for noise-suppression performance predictions. However, the movement behavior of hearing-impaired (HI) listeners with or without hearing aids may differ, and hearing-aid users might adapt their self-motion to improve the performance of directional algorithms. This work investigates the influence of hearing impairment on self-motion, and the interaction of hearing aids with self-motion. In order to do this, the self-motion of three HI participant groups---—aided with an adaptive differential microphone (ADM), aided without ADM, and unaided—was measured and compared to previously measured self-motion data from younger and older NH participants. Self-motion was measured in virtual audiovisual environments (VEs) in the laboratory, and the signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) and SNR improvement of the ADM resulting from the head movements of the participants were estimated using acoustic simulations. HI participants did almost all of the movement with their head and less with their eyes compared to NH participants, which led to a 0.3 dB increase in estimated SNR and to differences in estimated SNR improvement of the ADM. However, the self-motion of the HI participants aided with ADM was similar to that of other HI participants, indicating that the ADM did not cause listeners to adapt their self-motion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Rats readily switch between foraging and more complex navigational behaviors such as pursuit of other rats or prey. These tasks require vastly different tracking of multiple behaviorally significant variables including self-motion state. To explore whether navigational context modulates self-motion tracking, we examined self-motion tuning in posterior parietal cortex neurons during foraging versus visual target pursuit. Animals performing the pursuit task demonstrate predictive processing of target trajectories by anticipating and intercepting them. Relative to foraging, pursuit yields multiplicative gain modulation of self-motion tuning and enhances self-motion state decoding. Self-motion sensitivity in parietal cortex neurons is, on average, history dependent regardless of behavioral context, but the temporal window of self-motion integration extends during target pursuit. Finally, many self-motion-sensitive neurons conjunctively track the visual target position relative to the animal. Thus, posterior parietal cortex functions to integrate the location of navigationally relevant target stimuli into an ongoing representation of past, present, and future locomotor trajectories.

Multisensory plasticity enables our senses to dynamically adapt to each other and the external environment, a fundamental operation that our brain performs continuously. We searched for neural correlates of adult multisensory plasticity in the dorsal medial superior temporal area (MSTd) and the ventral intraparietal area (VIP) in 2 male rhesus macaques using a paradigm of supervised calibration. We report little plasticity in neural responses in the relatively low-level multisensory cortical area MSTd. In contrast, neural correlates of plasticity are found in higher-level multisensory VIP, an area with strong decision-related activity. Accordingly, we observed systematic shifts of VIP tuning curves, which were reflected in the choicerelated component of the population response. This is the first demonstration of neuronal calibration, together with behavioral calibration, in single sessions. These results lay the foundation for understanding multisensory neural plasticity, applicable broadly to maintaining accuracy for sensorimotor tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The response properties, connectivity and function of the cingulate sulcus visual area (CSv) are reviewed. Cortical area CSv has been identified in both human and macaque brains. It has similar response properties and connectivity in the two species. It is situated bilaterally in the cingulate sulcus close to an established group of medial motor/premotor areas. It has strong connectivity with these areas, particularly the cingulate motor areas and the supplementary motor area, suggesting that it is involved in motor control. CSv is active during visual stimulation but only if that stimulation is indicative of self-motion. It is also active during vestibular stimulation and connectivity data suggest that it receives proprioceptive input. Connectivity with topographically organized somatosensory and motor regions strongly emphasizes the legs over the arms. Together these properties suggest that CSv provides a key interface between the sensory and motor systems in the control of locomotion. It is likely that its role involves online control and adjustment of ongoing locomotory movements, including obstacle avoidance and maintaining the intended trajectory. It is proposed that CSv is best seen as part of the cingulate motor complex. In the human case, a modification of the influential scheme of Picard and Strick (Picard and Strick, Cereb Cortex 6:342–353, 1996) is proposed to reflect this. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the next century, flying civilians to space or humans to Mars will no longer be a subject of science fiction. The altered gravitational environment experienced during space flight, as well as that experienced following landing, results in impaired perceptual and motor performance—particularly in the first days of the new environmental challenge. Notably, the absence of gravity unloads the vestibular otolith organs such that they are no longer stimulated as they would be on earth. Understanding how the brain responds initially and then adapts to altered sensory input has important implications for understanding the inherent abilities as well as limitations of human performance. Space-based experiments have shown that altered gravity causes structural and functional changes at multiple stages of vestibular processing, spanning from the hair cells of its sensory organs to the Purkinje cells of the vestibular cerebellum. Furthermore, ground-based experiments have established the adaptive capacity of vestibular pathways and neural mechanism that likely underlie this adaptation. We review these studies and suggest that the brain likely uses two key strategies to adapt to changes in gravity: (i) the updating of a cerebellum-based internal model of the sensory consequences of gravity; and (ii) the re-weighting of extra-vestibular information as the vestibular system becomes less (i.e., entering microgravity) and then again more reliable (i.e., return to earth). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract I show that in his De motu animalium Aristoteles proposes a teleology of the practical on the most general zoological level, i.e. on the level common to humans and self-moving animals. A teleology of the practical is a teleological account of the highest practical goals of animal and human self-motion. I argue that Aristotle conceives of such highest practical goals as goals that are contingently related to their realizations. Animal and human self-motion is the kind of action in which certain state of affairs that realize values are mechanized.

Summary: Precise heading perception requires integration of optic flow and vestibular cues, yet the two cues often carry distinct temporal dynamics that may confound cue integration benefit. Here, we varied temporal offset between the two sensory inputs while macaques discriminated headings around straight ahead. We find the best heading performance does not occur under natural condition of synchronous inputs with zero offset but rather when visual stimuli are artificially adjusted to lead vestibular by a few hundreds of milliseconds. This amount exactly matches the lag between the vestibular acceleration and visual speed signals as measured from single-unit-activity in frontal and posterior parietal cortices. Manually aligning cues in these areas best facilitates integration with some nonlinear gain modulation effects. These findings are consistent with predictions from a model by which the brain integrates optic flow speed with a faster vestibular acceleration signal for sensing instantaneous heading direction during self-motion in the environment.

In order to achieve high efficient self-motion for a redundant robot manipulator, a novel quadratic programming and varying-gain recurrent neural network based varying-gain neural self-motion (VGN-SM) approach is proposed and developed. With VGN-SM, the convergence errors can be adaptively and efficiently converged to zero. For comparisons, a traditional fixed-parameter neural self-motion (FPN-SM) approach is also presented. Theoretical analysis shows that the proposed VGN-SM has higher accuracy than the traditional FPN-SM. Finally, comparative experiments between VGN-SM and FPN-SM are performed on a six degrees-of-freedom robot manipulator to verify the advantages of the novel VGN-SM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Age is associated with reduced ability to detect vestibular cues during optic flow. • Visual-vestibular integration is preserved with age despite vestibular decline. • Weak to absent effect of age on visual-vestibular integration in healthy adults. Aging is associated with a gradual decline in the sensory systems and noisier sensory information. Some research has found that older adults compensate for this with enhanced multisensory integration. However, less is known about how aging influences visual-vestibular integration, an ability that underlies self-motion perception. We examined how visual-vestibular integration changes in participants from across the lifespan (18–79 years old) with a simple reaction time task. Participants were instructed to respond to visual (optic flow) and vestibular (inertial motion) acceleration cues, presented either alone or at a stimulus onset asynchrony. We measured reaction times and computed the violation area relative to the race model inequality as a measure of visual-vestibular integration. Across all ages, the greatest visual-vestibular integration occurred when the vestibular cue was presented first. Age was associated with longer reaction times and a significantly lower detection rate in the vestibular-only condition, a finding that is consistent with an age-related increase in vestibular noise. Although the relationship between age and visual-vestibular integration was positive, the effect size was very small and did not reach statistical significance. Our results suggest that although age is associated with a significant increase in vestibular perceptual threshold, the relative amount of visual-vestibular integration remains largely intact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perceptual biases can be interpreted as adverse consequences of optimal processes which otherwise improve system performance. The review presented here focuses on the investigation of inaccuracies in multisensory perception by focusing on the perception of verticality and self-motion, where the vestibular sensory modality has a prominent role. Perception of verticality indicates how the system processes gravity. Thus, it represents an indirect measurement of vestibular perception. Head tilts can lead to biases in perceived verticality, interpreted as the influence of a vestibular prior set at the most common orientation relative to gravity (i.e., upright), useful for improving precision when upright (e.g., fall avoidance). Studies on the perception of verticality across development and in the presence of blindness show that prior acquisition is mediated by visual experience, thus unveiling the fundamental role of visuo-vestibular interconnections across development. Such multisensory interactions can be behaviorally tested with cross-modal aftereffect paradigms which test whether adaptation in one sensory modality induces biases in another, eventually revealing an interconnection between the tested sensory modalities. Such phenomena indicate the presence of multisensory neural mechanisms that constantly function to calibrate self-motion dedicated sensory modalities with each other as well as with the environment. Thus, biases in vestibular perception reveal how the brain optimally adapts to environmental requests, such as spatial navigation and steady changes in the surroundings.