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We simulate with a global 3D aeronomy code two warm Neptunes in the TOI-421 system and show that both planets experience significant escape of their upper atmospheres. The double shock structures, generated around the planets in course of their interaction with the stellar wind (SW) plasma flow are revealed. The calculations of stellar Ly α transit absorption by the planets reveal that it reaches a detectable level only for a moderate or strong SW, with a sufficiently high density. In this case, the energetic neutral atoms provide significant absorption at the high velocity blue wing of the Ly α line, whereas the corresponding transit light curves exhibit an early ingress and extended egress features. With the same code, we also modelled the absorption at the position of the 10 830 Å line of the metastable helium, showing that it can be detected only for the farthest planet of the considered two, if the helium abundance is comparable to the solar value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The signs of an expanding atmosphere of HD209458b have been observed with far-ultraviolet transmission spectroscopy and in the measurements of transit absorption by metastable He  i. These observations are interpreted using the hydrodynamic and Monte Carlo numerical simulations of various degree of complexity and consistency. At the same time, no attempt has been made to model atmospheric escape of a magnetized HD209458b, to see how the planetary magnetic field might affect the measured transit absorption lines. This paper presents the global 3D MHD self-consistent simulations of the expanding upper atmosphere of HD209458b interacting with the stellar wind, and models the observed H  i (Ly α), O  i (1306 Å), C  ii (1337 Å), and He  i (10 830 Å) transit absorption features. We find that the planetary dipole magnetic field with the equatorial surface value of Bp = 1 G profoundly changes the character of atmospheric material outflow and the related absorption. We also investigate the formation of planetary magnetosphere in the stellar wind and show that its size is more determined by the escaping atmosphere flow rather than by the strength of magnetic field. Fitting of the simulation results to observations enables constraining the stellar XUV flux and He abundance at F XUV ∼ 10 erg cm2 s–1 (at 1 au) and He/H ≈ 0.02, respectively, as well as setting an upper limit for the dipole magnetic field of Bp < 0.1 G on the planetary surface at the equator. This implies that the magnetic dipole moment µP of HD209458b should be less than 6 per cent of the Jovian value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transmission spectroscopy of WASP-107b revealed 7–8 per cent absorption at the position of metastable He  i triplet at 10 830 Å in the velocity range of [−20; 10] km s−1. This absorption is stronger than that measured in other exoplanets. With a dedicated 3D self-consistent hydrodynamic multifluid model, we simulated the expanding upper atmosphere of WASP-107b and reproduced within the observations accuracy the measured He  i absorption profiles, constraining the stellar X-ray and UV radiation (XUV) flux to 6–10 erg cm−2 s−1 at 1 au, and the upper atmosphere helium abundance He/H to 0.075–0.15. The radiation pressure acting on the metastable He  i atoms was shown to be an important factor influencing the absorption profiles. Its effect is counterbalanced by the collisional depopulation of the He  i metastable state. Altogether, the observed He  i absorption in WASP-107b can be interpreted with the expected reasonable parameters of the stellar–planetary system and appropriate account of the electron and atom impact processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Warm Neptune GJ3470b has been recently observed in 23S-23P transition of metastable helium, yielding absorption of about 1 per cent in Doppler velocity range of [−40; 10] km s−1. Along with previous detection of absorption in Ly α with depth of 20–40 per cent in the blue and red wings of the line, it offers a complex target for simulation and testing of the current models. Obtained results suggest that absorption in both these lines comes from interaction of expanding upper planetary atmosphere with stellar plasma wind, allowing to constrain the stellar plasma parameters and the helium abundance in planet atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simulation results are presented for the Lyα flux impact from the parent star on the Hα absorption spectrum in the atmospheres of the hot Jupiters HD189733b and HD 209458b. The atmosphere is simulated using a three-dimensional hydrodynamic code. Several options are considered for the upper atmospheric composition, including variations in the XUV parameter. The Lyα photon transfer in the atmosphere is simulated by the Monte Carlo method. Spatial distributions are obtained for the bulk density of hydrogen atoms excited to the second energy level; absorption spectra in the Hα line are calculated. It is shown that the transit absorption of the hot Jupiters in the Hα line can be described by a relatively simple model of the Lyα photon transfer in the upper atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The studies of close-orbit gaseous exoplanets—hot Jupiters and warm Neptunes—are reviewed. Transit spectral observations of the Hubble Space Telescope stimulated the numerical modeling of these objects. The supersonic outflow of the upper atmosphere of hot exoplanets and its interaction with the stellar plasma flow is a newly-discovered phenomenon in plasma physics and astrophysics that pools photo- and plasma-chemistry, collision-induced gas-dynamics, and collisionless space plasma. Starting from 2003, the modeling of physical processes in this field has considerably developed from simple quasi-empiric analytical formulas to global three-dimensional magnetic hydrodynamic (3D MHD) codes. The attained level makes it possible to interpret the in-transit measurements in absorption lines of different elements and estimate the parameters of both the planetary atmospheres and the stellar plasma wind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The discovery of thousands of highly irradiated, low-mass, exoplanets has led to the idea that atmospheric escape is an important process that can drive their evolution. Of particular interest is the inference from recent exoplanet detections that there is a large population of low mass planets possessing significant, hydrogen dominated atmospheres, even at masses as low as ∼ 2 M ⊕ . The size of these hydrogen dominated atmospheres indicates the envelopes must have been accreted from the natal protoplanetary disc. This inference is in contradiction with the Solar System terrestrial planets, that did not reach their final masses before disc dispersal, and only accreted thin hydrogen dominated atmospheres. In this review, we discuss the evidence for hydrogen dominated atmospheres on terrestrial mass (≲ 2 M ⊕ ) planets. We then discuss the possible origins and evolution of these atmospheres with a focus on the role played by hydrodynamic atmospheric escape driven by the stellar high-energy emission (X-ray and EUV; XUV). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The absorption of stellar radiation observed at transits of HD 209458b in resonant lines of O  i and C  ii has not yet been satisfactorily modelled. In our previous two-dimensional (2D) simulations, we have shown that the hydrogen-dominated upper atmosphere of HD 209458b, heated by extreme ultraviolet radiation, expands supersonically beyond the Roche lobe and drags heavier species along with it. Assuming solar abundances, O  i and C  ii particles accelerated by tidal forces to velocities up to 50  |${\rm km}\,{\rm s}^{-1}$| should produce the absorption due to Doppler resonance at the level of 6–10 per  cent, consistent with the observations. Since the 2D geometry does not take into account the Coriolis force in a planet reference frame, the question remains to what extent the spiralling of escaping planetary material and actually achieved velocity may influence the conclusions made on the basis of 2D modelling. In this paper, we apply for the first time in studies of HD 209458b a global 3D hydrodynamic multifluid model. The results confirm our previous findings that the velocity of the planetary flow is sufficiently high to match the widths of O  i and C  ii resonant lines. To match the absorption in those lines, including H  i , with observations, the mass-loss rate of HD 209458b should be about |$2.5\times10^{11}\,{\rm g\,s^{-1}}$|⁠ , which is 3.5 times larger than that revealed by the 2D model. The other novel finding is that matching of the absorption measured in Mg  ii and S  iii lines requires at least 10 times lower abundances of these elements than the solar values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerical modeling results of interactions of the planetary atmosphere of Gliese 436b with ionizing radiation and the plasma wind of an M star are presented. A self-consistent gas-dynamic 2D model characterizing the processes of radiation heating and ionization and hydrogen photochemistry reactions was used in the modeling. It is demonstrated that Gliese 436b should have an extended (several tens of planetary radii) exosphere, which is formed by partially ionized gas with added molecular components, with a supersonic outflow velocity. The influence of such factors as the XUV radiation intensity and the temperature of the lower atmosphere on the mass loss rate is examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Results of a study of the influence of solar-type host stars superflares on the gas dynamics of the extended envelopes of giant exoplanets are presented. During flare events, the radiation intensity of the host star in the extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray can increase by several orders of magnitude for a short time, leading to strong local heating of the exoplanet atmosphere on the side facing the star, with the formation of shocks in the atmosphere. Computations of the gas-dynamical response of the atmosphere of the hot Jupiter HD 209458b to characteristic superflares of solar-like stars were carried out earlier in [1] using a one-dimensional aeronomical model correctly taking into account heating and chemical processes in the atmosphere. To investigate the outflow of atmospheric gas, the results obtained with this onedimensional model were used as simple boundary conditions for computations of the three-dimensional flow structure after a flare. The results of these three-dimensional gas-dynamical computations show that the mass ejection of the flare increases the size of the envelope over several hours, which could be detected with existing observing facilities. It is shown that the mass-loss rates for the most powerful superflare considered could be enhanced by an order of magnitude over several tens of hours after the flare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a 3D fully self-consistent multifluid hydrodynamic aeronomy model to study the structure of a hydrogen-dominated expanding upper atmosphere around the hot Jupiter HD 209458b and the warm Neptune GJ 436b. In comparison to previous studies with 1D and 2D models, this work finds such 3D features as zonal flows in upper atmosphere reaching up to 1 km s−1, the tilting of the planetary outflow by Coriolis force by up to 45 degrees and its compression around equatorial plane by tidal forces. We also investigated in detail the influence of helium (He) on the structure of the thermosphere. It is found that by decrease of the barometric scale height, the He presence in the atmosphere strongly affects the H2dissociation front and the temperature maximum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Possible reasons for the non-detection of absorption in the metastable He  i (23S) line at transit observations of warm Neptune GJ436b, in spite of the well-pronounced strong absorption features measured earlier in Lyα for this planet, are investigated. We perform numeric simulations of the escaping upper atmosphere of this planet and its He  i (23S) triplet absorption with a global 3D multifluid, self-consistent hydrodynamic model. By fitting the model parameters to the lowest detection level of absorption measurements, we constrain an upper limit for the He/H abundance three times smaller than the solar value. We demonstrate that neither the significant changes of the stellar wind related to possible stellar coronal mass ejections (CMEs), or possible variations in the stellar ionization radiation, nor the presence of heavy trace elements have a crucial effect on the absorption at the 10   830 Å line of He  i (23S) triplet. The main reason of weak signature is that the region populated by the absorbing metastable helium is rather small (<3 R p), as well as the small size of the planet itself in comparison to the host star. We show that the radiation pressure force acting on the He  i (23S) atoms spreads them along the line of sight and around the planet, thus further reducing peak absorption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of modeling the Hα absorption spectrum of the atmosphere of the hot Jupiter WASP‑52b are presented. The atmosphere was modeled with a three-dimensional hydrodynamic code. Several different values of the XUV ionizing radiation were considered. The Lyα-photon transfer in the atmosphere was simulated by the Monte Carlo method. Spatial distributions of the volume density of hydrogen atoms excited to the second energy level H(2) were obtained, and absorption spectra in the Hα line were calculated. It was also shown that absorption takes place in a layer with a thickness of about 1.5 times the planetary radius, while the greatest influence on absorption is exerted by Lyα photons produced due to recombination of electrons and protons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnetospheres at ion kinetic scales, or mini-magnetospheres, possess unusual features as predicted by numerical simulations. However, there are practically no data on the subject from space observations and the data which are available are far too incomplete. In this paper we describe the results of a laboratory experiment on the interaction of plasma flow with a magnetic dipole with parameters such that the ion inertial length is larger than the size of an observed magnetosphere. A detailed structure of the non-coplanar or out-of-plane component of the magnetic field has been obtained in the meridian plane. The independence of this component on dipole moment reversal, as was reported in a previous work, has been verified. In the tail distinct lobes and a central current sheet have been observed. It was found that lobe regions adjacent to boundary layer are dominated by a non-coplanar component of magnetic field. Tail-ward oriented electric current in the plasma associated with that component appears to be equal to the ion current in the upstream part of magnetosphere and in the tail current sheet implying that electrons are stationary in those regions while the ions flow by. The data obtained strongly support the proposed model of mini-magnetosphere based on two-fluid effects as described by the Hall term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Results of an experiment on the interaction of laser-produced plasma with a pulsed gas jet are reported. A resonant charge-exchange pumping of the n=3 level of the C3+ ion was observed. A spatial structure of the region of intensive interaction was obtained by a short time imaging of filtered plasma radiation. According to independent probe measurements, the interaction was realized at densities of ions and gas particles in excess of 1016 cm-3. The obtained data provide a prospect for future experiments on laser gain in the EUV spectral range based on charge-exchange pumping of the C5+ ion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As is known, the influence of the ionizing radiation and the gravity of a star on a hot Jupiter results in the outflow of its atmosphere. Due to the gravity of the planet, the outflowing matter acquires angular momentum, after which it is accumulated on a higher circular orbit around the star and forms a disk or a torus. The angular momentum interexchange between the torus and the planet induces the migration of the planet to the star. In this paper, we consider the effectiveness of this migration mechanism by the example of the HD 209458 system. It turns out that, after 4.5 × 109 years since the evaporation of the protoplanetary disk, the planet might migrate from an orbit at ≳0.67 AU to its current orbit at 0.045 AU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present two-dimensional multifluid numerical modelling of the upper atmosphere of the hot Jupiter WASP-12b. The model includes hydrogen chemistry, and self-consistently describes the expansion of the planetary upper atmosphere and mass-loss due to intensive stellar irradiation, assuming a weakly magnetized planet. We simulate the planetary upper atmosphere and its interaction with the stellar wind (SW) with and without the inclusion of tidal force and consider different XUV irradiation conditions and SW parameters. With the inclusion of tidal force, even for a fast SW, the escaping planetary material forms two streams, propagating towards and away from the star. The atmospheric escape and related mass-loss rate reaching the value of 1012 g s−1 appear to be mostly controlled by the stellar gravitational pull. We computed the column density and dynamics of Mg  ii ions considering three different sets of SW parameters and XUV fluxes. The simulations enable to compute the absorption at the position of the Mg h line and to reproduce the times of ingress and egress. In case of a slow SW and without accounting for tidal force, the high orbital velocity leads to the formation of a shock approximately in the direction of the planetary orbital motion. In this case, mass-loss is proportional to the stellar XUV flux. At the same time, ignoring of tidal effects for WASP-12b is a strong simplification, so the scenario with a shock, altogether is an unrealistic one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The laboratory experiment on modeling a sub-Alfvénic interaction of expanding plasma cloud with vacuum magnetic field is described. We produce spherically symmetric cloud by 4-beam laser irradiation of the pellet. The presented data reveal complex dynamic of cloud deceleration and formation of two field aligned jets, development of the flute instability and rapid collapse of the diamagnetic cavity. It is shown that cavity collapse can't be explained by plasma motion or anomalous diffusion and requires for explanation a new mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural instabilities that develop during pulsed injection of dense plasma jets into vacuum in the presence of an external quasi-homogeneous magnetic field are studied by high-speed photography using ICCD cameras. The experiments are carried out in the chamber of the "Krot" stand, which has record-breaking dimensions in its class of installations (diameter—3 m, length of the working section—10 m), and makes it possible to study plasma dynamics by various diagnostic methods at scales of more than 1 m both along the magnetic field and in the direction transverse to the magnetic field. During injection along the magnetic field, a transverse collimation of the flow of ionized matter and the development of a flute instability of the plasma boundary are observed, which, at the late stages of expansion, leads to the plasma leaving the injection region in the form of several jets across the field. During transverse injection, the formation of a collimated flow, a "plasma sheet," is observed, in which, as the plasma moves across the field, inhomogeneous structures develop in the direction of injection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of laboratory experiment modeling the interaction between Lunar magnetic anomalies and Solar wind. To model the LMA we use quadrupole magnetic field. The main dimensionless parameter of the problem, the ion inertia length relative to the mini-magnetosphere size, well corresponds between experiment and LMA conditions. The main result is measurement of the magnetically reflected proton fluxes, which show qualitative agreement to available satellite data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Short pulse laser generated plasmas interacting with a pulsed gas jet are studied to aid the realization of novel XUV laser schemes based on recombination supported by charge exchange pumping. Interaction of C4+, O3+ and O4+ ions with hydrogen and nitrogen indicates strong charge exchange pumping of C3+(3p-2s, 3d-2p) lines at 31.2 and 38.4 nm, and O2+ (2p 3s-2p2) and O3+ (2s 3d-2s22p) lines at 37.4 and 23.8 nm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of a laboratory experiment on the simulation of the reflection of protons over regions of the local magnetization of the lunar crust have been reported. Quadrupole and dipole sources have been used to simulate a local magnetic field. The magnetic-field-induced reflection of protons near lunar magnetic anomalies reaches 50% of the incident flow. A significant difference between the quadrupole and dipole configurations has been detected both in the structure of the mini-magnetosphere and in the reflection of protons. The data obtained are in qualitative agreement with in situ measurements by spacecrafts over lunar magnetic anomalies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of a laboratory experiment on the simulation of the reflection of protons over regions of the local magnetization of the lunar crust have been reported. Quadrupole and dipole sources have been used to simulate a local magnetic field. The magnetic-field-induced reflection of protons near lunar magnetic anomalies reaches 50% of the incident flow. A significant difference between the quadrupole and dipole configurations has been detected both in the structure of the mini-magnetosphere and in the reflection of protons. The data obtained are in qualitative agreement with in situ measurements by spacecrafts over lunar magnetic anomalies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. We modeled the transit signatures in the Lyman-alpha (Ly-α) line of a putative Earth-sized planet orbiting in the habitable zone (HZ) of the M dwarf GJ 436. We estimated the transit depth in the Ly-α line for an exo-Earth with three types of atmospheres: a hydrogen-dominated atmosphere, a nitrogen-dominated atmosphere, and a nitrogen-dominated atmosphere with an amount of hydrogen equal to that of the Earth. For all types of atmospheres, we calculated in-transit absorption they would produce in the stellar Ly-α line. We applied it to the out-of-transit Ly-α observations of GJ 436 obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and compared the calculated in-transit absorption with observational uncertainties to determine if it would be detectable. To validate the model, we also used our method to simulate the deep absorption signature observed during the transit of GJ 436b and showed that our model is capable of reproducing the observations. Methods. We used a direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) code to model the planetary exospheres. The code includes several species and traces neutral particles and ions. It includes several ionization mechanisms, such as charge exchange with the stellar wind, photo- and electron impact ionization, and allows to trace particles collisions. At the lower boundary of the DSMC model we assumed an atmosphere density, temperature, and velocity obtained with a hydrodynamic model for the lower atmosphere. Results. We showed that for a small rocky Earth-like planet orbiting in the HZ of GJ 436 only the hydrogen-dominated atmosphere is marginally detectable with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) on board the HST. Neither a pure nitrogen atmosphere nor a nitrogen-dominated atmosphere with an Earth-like hydrogen concentration in the upper atmosphere are detectable. We also showed that the Ly-α observations of GJ 436b can be reproduced reasonably well assuming a hydrogen-dominated atmosphere, both in the blue and red wings of the Ly-α line, which indicates that warm Neptune-like planets are a suitable target for Ly-α observations. Terrestrial planets, on the other hand, can be observed in the Ly-α line if they orbit very nearby stars, or if several observational visits are available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the interaction between themagnetized stellarwind plasma and the partially ionized hydrodynamic hydrogen outflow from the escaping upper atmosphere of non-magnetized or weakly magnetized hot Jupiters. We use the well-studied hot Jupiter HD 209458b as an example for similar exoplanets, assuming a negligible intrinsic magnetic moment. For this planet, the stellar wind plasma interaction forms an obstacle in the planet's upper atmosphere, in which the position of the magnetopause is determined by the condition of pressure balance between the stellar wind and the expanded atmosphere, heated by the stellar extreme ultraviolet radiation.We show that the neutral atmospheric atoms penetrate into the region dominated by the stellar wind, where they are ionized by photoionization and charge exchange, and then mixed with the stellar wind flow. Using a 3D magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) model, we show that an induced magnetic field forms in front of the planetary obstacle, which appears to be much stronger compared to those produced by the solar wind interaction with Venus and Mars. Depending on the stellar wind parameters, because of the induced magnetic field, the planetary obstacle can move up to ≈0.5-1 planetary radii closer to the planet. Finally, we discuss how estimations of the intrinsic magnetic moment of hot Jupiters can be inferred by coupling hydrodynamic upper planetary atmosphere andMHDstellar wind interaction models together with UV observations. In particular, we find that HD 209458b should likely have an intrinsic magnetic moment of 10-20 per cent that of Jupiter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of laboratory experiments with laser plasma flow around a magnetic dipole which model the extreme compression of the Earthś magnetosphere by the plasma generated by high-power coronal mass ejections. Data on the formation of an artificial magnetosphere, the boundary-layer structure, and the size of the magnetosphere as a function of the magnetic moment are given. It is shown that in the presence of a conducting dipole shell modeling the ionosphere, conditions are created for the flow of intense longitudinal currents in the polar regions. It is established that the longitudinal currents have little effect on the position of the plasma stagnation point and the transition layer but make a significant contribution to the disturbance of the magnetic field in the magnetosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ion composition of a plasma flow obtained by intense irradiation of a solid target is determined by methods of probing diagnostics and measuring the secondary emission rate. As the ions fly through a dense gas jet, C 5+ ions are found to recharge to C 4+ ions and then to C 3+ ions. The fraction of high-charge ions in the initial plasma flow and their concentration in the region of interaction with the jet are calculated. The concentration of atoms in the gas jet is estimated on the basis of the integral change in the charge value. Results necessary for analyzing the conditions of experiments on effective charge-transfer pumping and laser generation in the far ultraviolet spectral range are obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with the physical and electrotechnical principles of the promising method of direct conversion of the kinetic energy of an expanding plasma cloud to electrical energy by inductive generation of currents in short–circuited load coils that enclose the plasma and are oriented across the external magnetic field. An analysis of plasma deceleration by a magnetic field and transfer of plasma energy to an inductive load gave a solution of the problem in general form and the dimensionless parameters of the problem that determine the deceleration radius, the coil current, and the theoretical conversion efficiency. The role of the basic physical effects, including parasitic ones (plasma instabilities and Joule heating), influencing the real efficiency is assessed. A comparison of the results with data of experiments with laser–produced plasma clouds on a KI–1 facility and with available numerical results shows that in the optimized version of the method for conversion of inertial confinement fusion energy, a 30% efficiency can be achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]