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Eruptive activity shapes volcanic edifices. The formation of broad caldera depressions is often associated with major collapse events, emplacing conspicuous pyroclastic deposits. However, caldera subsidence may also proceed silently by magma withdrawal at depth, more difficult to detect. Ambrym, a basaltic volcanic island, hosts a 12-km wide caldera and several intensely-degassing lava lakes confined to intra-caldera cones. Using satellite remote sensing of deformation, gas emissions and thermal anomalies, combined with seismicity and ground observations, we show that in December 2018 an intra-caldera eruption at Ambrym preceded normal faulting with >2 m of associated uplift along the eastern rift zone and 2.5 m of caldera-wide subsidence. Deformation was caused by lateral migration of >0.4 cubic kilometers of magma into the rift zone, extinguishing the lava lakes, and feeding a submarine eruption in the rift edge. Recurring rifting episodes, favored by stress induced by the D'Entrecasteaux Ridge collision against the New Hebrides arc, lead to progressive subsidence of Ambrym's caldera and concurrent draining of the lava lakes. Although counterintuitive, convergent margin systems can induce rift zone volcanism and subsequent caldera subsidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When dense granular matter is sheared, the strain is often localized in shear bands. After some initial transient these shear bands become stationary. Here, we introduce a setup that periodically creates horizontally aligned shear bands which then migrate upward through the sample. Using x-ray radiography we demonstrate that this effect is caused by dilatancy, the reduction in volume fraction occurring in sheared dense granular media. Further on, we argue that these migrating shear bands are responsible for the previously reported periodic inflating and collapsing of the material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past 30 years, magmatic activity at the basaltic volcano of Ambrym (Vanuatu), which hosts a notable 12-km-diameter caldera, has been characterized by strombolian activity restricted to the two (or more) semi-permanent lava lakes. Little is known about the magma plumbing system of this volcano, due to its remote location (lack of instrumentation) and its persistent background activity (which does not provide insights into deeper magmatic processes). In the past 4 years, however, two effusive intra-caldera eruptions have allowed us to exploit ground deformation (InSAR) and degassing (satellite-based hyperspectral measurements) data. In particular, ground deformation measurements during the December 2018 eruption show a migration of magma from within the caldera to more than 20 km into the SE Rift Zone and towards the ocean. A similar event has not occurred at Ambrym since the 1930's, and this is thus the first opportunity to model the propagation and emplacement of magma in the volcano's well-defined rift zone. In addition, a spectacular, island-wide signal from a decompressing source accompanied this intrusive event, as well as an extinction of the five lava lakes associated with multiple crater collapse, ash clouds, and followed by a drastic decrease in degassing. We use InSAR ground deformation measurements to track the decaying subsidence signal during the days and weeks following the eruption. By combining SAR images from multiple satellites (ALOS-2, Sentinel-1, and Cosmo-SkyMed), we are able to model the geometries, locations and pressure changes due to multiple deformation sources, including the initial intra-caldera dike intrusion, the SE rift zone intrusion, caldera faulting, and the deep, decompressing source. Together with ground observations and satellite gas measurements from Sentinel-5P's TROPOMI, which allow for reconstructing sulphur dioxide emission rates and injection heights into the atmosphere, these models provide us with a comprehensive overview of an extremely active, yet understudied volcanic system and the magma plumbing system that drives its persistent activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At andesitic volcanoes, effusive lava flows and dome emplacement alternate with explosive, sometimes very destructive events. It is thus crucial to obtain quantitative information on the dome volume emplaced as well as on the extrusion rate. However, steep slopes and continuous activity make it difficult to install field instruments near many volcano summits. In this study, we take advantage of two high resolution remote-sensing datasets, Pléiades (optical acquisitions in tri-stereo mode) and TanDEM-X (radar acquisitions in bistatic mode), to produce twenty Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) over the summit area of Merapi volcano, Indonesia, between July 2018 and December 2019. We calculate the difference in elevation between each DEM and a reference DEM derived from Pléiades images acquired in 2013, in order to track the evolution of the dome in the crater. Uncertainties are quantified for each dataset by a statistical analysis of areas with no change in elevation. We show that the DEMs derived from Pléiades and TanDEM-X data are consistent with each other and provide good spatio-temporal constraints on the evolution of the dome. Furthermore, the remote-sensing estimate of the lava volume is consistent with local drone measurements carried out by BPPTKG at the time of dome growth. From our DEMs, we show that the dome growth was sustained by a relatively small effusion rate of about 0.0336 ± 0.0067 m3.s−1(2900 ± 580 m3/day) from August 2018 to February 2019, when it reached a height of 40 m (± 5 m) and a volume of 0.64 Mm3 (± 0.03 Mm3). The lava dome initially grew radially, and then extended asymmetrically to the northwest and southeast starting in October 2018. From February 2019 onwards, the dome elevation remained constant, but lava was continuously emitted. Lava supply was balanced by destabilization southwards downhill producing an accumulation zone of 400 m long and maximum 15 m (± 5 m) high with a volume of 0.37 Mm3 (± 0.29 Mm3). The measured accumulation rate between February and September 2019 is 0.0094 ± 0.001 m3.s−1(810 ± 90 m3/day). In late 2019, several minor explosions partially destroyed the center of the dome. This study highlights the strong potential of the joint use of TanDEM-X and Pléiades DEMs to quantitatively monitor domes at andesitic stratovolcanoes. • Joint use of TanDEM-X and Pléiades to build a dense DEM time series of Merapi between 2018 and 2019 • Multi-tool analysis for dome monitoring with TanDEM-X: interferometry, amplitude, coherence. • Monitoring the growth and partial destruction of a small lava dome. • Dome growth rate close to the long-term effusion rate of Merapi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When investigating dynamical processes in granular systems, it is frequently necessary to measure the time-resolved local material density. Recently, x-ray radiography facilities became available in many laboratories and can be used to measure the volume fraction via the attenuation of x-ray radiation along the beam direction. Naïve application of the Beer-Lambert law yields, however, unacceptably large systematic errors due to beam hardening. We present a calibration protocol which allows to reliably measure the local volume fraction based exclusively on reference measurement of known packing fraction. Unlabelled Image • Quantitative measurement of the volume fraction of granular packings using x-rays. • Calibration of the standard Beer-Lambert law with respect to beam hardening. • Elaboration of a general calibration protocol for x-ray radiography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After 25 years of gradual increase, volcanic unrest at La Soufrière of Guadeloupe reached its highest seismic energy level on 27 April 2018, with the largest felt volcano-tectonic (VT) earthquake (M L 4.1 or M W 3.7) recorded since the 1976–1977 phreatic eruptive crisis. This event marked the onset of a seismic swarm (180 events, 2 felt) occurring after three previous swarms on 3–6 January (70 events), 1 st February (30 events, 1 felt) and 16–17 April (140 events, 1 felt). Many events were hybrid VTs with long-period codas, located 2–4 km below the volcano summit and clustered within 2 km along a regional NW-SE fault cross-cutting La Soufrière. Elastic energy release increased with each swarm whereas inter-event time shortened. At the same time, summit fractures continued to open and thermal anomalies to extend. Summit fumarolic activity increased significantly until 20 April, with a maximum temperature of 111.4 °C and gas exit velocity of 80 m/s, before declining to ~95 °C and ~33 m/s on 25 April. Gas compositions revealed increasing C/S and CO 2 /CH 4 ratios and indicate hydrothermal P-T conditions that reached the critical point of pure water. Repeated MultiGAS analysis of fumarolic plumes showed increased CO 2 /H 2 S ratios and SO 2 contents associated with the reactivation of degassing fractures (T = 93 °C, H 2 S/SO 2 ≈ 1). While no direct evidence of upward magma migration was detected, we attribute the above phenomena to an increased supply of deep magmatic fluids that heated and pressurized the La Soufrière hydrothermal system, triggering seismogenic hydro-fracturing, and probable changes in deep hydraulic properties (permeability) and drainage pathways, which ultimately allowed the fumarolic fluxes to lower. Although this magmatic fluid injection was modulated by the hydrothermal system, the unprecedented seismic energy release and the critical point conditions of hydrothermal fluids suggest that the 2018 sequence of events can be regarded as a failed phreatic eruption. Should a similar sequence repeat, we warn that phreatic explosive activity could result from disruption of the shallow hydrothermal system that is currently responsible for 3–9 mm/y of nearly radial horizontal displacements within 1 km from the dome. Another potential hazard is partial collapse of the dome's SW flank, already affected by basal spreading above a detachment surface inherited from past collapses. Finally, the increased magmatic fluid supply evidenced by geochemical indicators in 2018 is compatible with magma replenishment of the 6–7 km deep crustal reservoir feeding La Soufrière and, therefore, with a potential evolution of the volcano's activity towards magmatic conditions. • Distal seismicity due to pore pressure build-up and hydroshearing/hydrofracturing • Permeability of dome fractures and faults is key for phreatic activity. • Ratios of non-condensable gases disclose involved gas end-members. • Joint geochemical and geophysical assessment mandatory to assess role of fluids • The hydrothermal system reacts very quickly to deep fluid infiltration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]