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Social costs of construction projects – systematic literature review and recommendations for action The world's population is still growing. The need for housing, educational and care facilities, logistics and infrastructure in inner‐city areas is increasing. The associated construction measures affect neighborhoods, the use of the district and urban traffic and cause social costs for the surrounding structures (so‐called social cost). However, as the focus of investment decisions by developers is currently predominantly on investment costs, social costs are rarely taken into account or internalized in construction projects. Consequently, they have to be borne by society. Studies on the social costs of construction projects already exist internationally. An up‐to‐date, holistic and systematic overview is still lacking. However, international regulations such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and the EU taxonomy (ESG criteria) as well as national regulations such as CO2 pricing and the Climate Protection Act in Germany are increasing the importance of sustainable measures in the construction process, which also influence the social costs of construction projects. In order to be able to provide an economic assessment of the consequences of these regulations, a systematic literature review of the social costs is carried out in this article. This is pursued with the aim of promoting the use of more sustainable measures in the construction process and demonstrating their added value for society in a social context. The article focuses on building construction projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Claudia Goldin's landmark Nobel Prize in Economics on labour economics and gender pay gap among educational and occupational strata has generated discussion around an interesting concept called 'greedy work.' Greedy work, as Goldin explains, is a job that pays disproportionately more on a per-hour basis, when people work a greater number of hours, or more importantly, has less control over those hours. This article argues that greedy work results in much larger social costs than just gender pay gaps. The social costs of greedy work find expressions in poor work–life balance, an organisational work culture that creates unhealthy competition, and skewed perceptions of distributive justice at the workplace. These outcomes are interrelated and transcends gender boundaries. The article concludes, transparency, procedural clarity, and a work culture, that encourages work that is cooperative in nature, could potentially minimise these social costs. Discussion around the social costs of greedy work gains relevance in the context of the recent debates around the linkage of longer work hours and nation's productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficient management of temporary infrastructure is pivotal for the success and sustainability of periodic fairs and festivals. Coordination among stakeholders involved in procurement, supply, and timely delivery is essential. The involvement of multiple stakeholders results in varying cost engagements at different levels. This study proposes a centralised operational framework for infrastructure distribution, potentially reducing overall costs. Focusing on West Midnapore district, India, the research aims to introduce a sustainable and cost-effective strategy for temporary infrastructure management. Recognising the significance of transportation in managing temporary infrastructures, the study emphasises reducing travel distances and minimising site occupancy time to enhance cost efficiency. Using a linear regression model, the required infrastructural goods for fairs in the district are quantified. A delivery schedule is devised, employing vehicle route planning techniques to determine reduced truck travel distances. Comparing different distribution frameworks, the study finds that a centralised approach utilising three trucks is the most sustainable and cost-effective solution. Moreover, it examines and quantifies the social cost incurred when infrastructure items exceed the allowed fair duration in the current system. Implementing this proposed approach enables stakeholders to balance sustainability cost-effectiveness and build an efficient infrastructure supply chain management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Air pollution has been raised as one of the most important risk factors contributing to citizens᾽ health and the emergence of environmental problems in recent years. Determining the emission rate and the costs imposed by fossil fuel pollutants on human health is an effective approach that can provide a financial estimation from harmful effects of these compounds for urbanized and industrial managers. This study considered the estimation of emissions, external costs, and ecological footprints of NOx, SO2, SO3, CO, SPM, CO2, CH4, and N2O resulting from the consumption of three types of fossil fuels including natural gas, gasoline, and diesel in an industrial company. Material and Methods: The scope of study includes an industrial company in the west of Tehran, Iran. Firstly, data about the consumption of fossil fuels was collected in the main consumer sectors such as engine rooms, private and industrial vehicles in 1401. Next, the emission rate of the pollutants was estimated by using the energy balance sheet notified by the Ministry of Energy and Electricity Deputy in 1399. By having the amount of fuel consumed from each source and considering basic amount of the social cost of each pollutant, initial estimation of the social cost of pollutants was calculated. Subsequently, correction factors were assigned and the costs were updated (based on constant prices in 1381). Ultimately, ecological footprint was computed with regard to the total amount of fossil fuels consumed in 1401. Results and Discussion: According to the results, 1943880.64 cubic meters of natural gas were consumed in the engine room sector. Furthermore, 64435 liters of gasoline and 461482 liters of diesel were utilized by private and heavy industrial vehicles, respectively. In 1400, the emission rate of NOx, SO2, SO3, CO, SPM, CO2, CH4 and N2O was 17278.68, 7694.17, 90.34, 25972.46, 6400.79, 88860.01, 187.43, and 78.81, respectively. CO2 pollutant with 4088860.01 kg took into account the highest and SO3 pollutant with 90.34 kg had the lowest emission rate in the year. Based on the emission coefficient obtained from the Iran energy balance in 1399, the social cost for NOx, SO2, CO, SPM, CO2, CH4 were calculated 437081507, 592005417, 205312306, 1160386931, 1722935861, 1659463 Rials per year, respectively, which shows CO2 and CH4 gases impose the highest and lowest social cost to the environment, respectively. Moreover, total social cost based on the exchange rate and inflation rate approach was calculated about 4119381486 and 16383725983 billion Rials, respectively (after the coefficient factor was considered for constant prices in 1381). The calculations related to the estimation of the ecological footprint indicate that gasoline with 22.87 and natural gas with 9.33 hectares have created the greatest and the least ecological footprint. In addition, the total ecological footprint was calculated approximately 50.93 hectares. Conclusion: The social cost of pollutants in this study showed different results based on the volume of their emission. While the engine room had the largest share in greenhouse gas emissions with the amount of 26655364.69 Kg, the forklift trucks imposed the largest social cost with the amount of 1808115554 Rials due to the high emission rate of NOx, SPM and SO2 pollutants and also, the higher social cost of these three pollutants compared to the other ones. This method can be used as a model in calculating the social costs of released pollutants within industrial companies and the results can be monitored in the context of their environmental planning so that by identifying the centers of pollution and prioritizing them, correct budgeting should be set to reduce the amount of emissions and social cost of pollutants.

Introduction: Air pollution has been raised as one of the most important risk factors contributing to citizens᾽ health and the emergence of environmental problems in recent years. Determining the emission rate and the costs imposed by fossil fuel pollutants on human health is an effective approach that can provide a financial estimation from harmful effects of these compounds for urbanized and industrial managers. This study considered the estimation of emissions, external costs, and ecological footprints of NOx, SO2, SO3, CO, SPM, CO2, CH4, and N2O resulting from the consumption of three types of fossil fuels including natural gas, gasoline, and diesel in an industrial company. Material and Methods: The scope of study includes an industrial company in the west of Tehran, Iran. Firstly, data about the consumption of fossil fuels was collected in the main consumer sectors such as engine rooms, private and industrial vehicles in 1401. Next, the emission rate of the pollutants was estimated by using the energy balance sheet notified by the Ministry of Energy and Electricity Deputy in 1399. By having the amount of fuel consumed from each source and considering basic amount of the social cost of each pollutant, initial estimation of the social cost of pollutants was calculated. Subsequently, correction factors were assigned and the costs were updated (based on constant prices in 1381). Ultimately, ecological footprint was computed with regard to the total amount of fossil fuels consumed in 1401. Results and Discussion: According to the results, 1943880.64 cubic meters of natural gas were consumed in the engine room sector. Furthermore, 64435 liters of gasoline and 461482 liters of diesel were utilized by private and heavy industrial vehicles, respectively. In 1400, the emission rate of NOx, SO2, SO3, CO, SPM, CO2, CH4 and N2O was 17278.68, 7694.17, 90.34, 25972.46, 6400.79, 88860.01, 187.43, and 78.81, respectively. CO2 pollutant with 4088860.01 kg took into account the highest and SO3 pollutant with 90.34 kg had the lowest emission rate in the year. Based on the emission coefficient obtained from the Iran energy balance in 1399, the social cost for NOx, SO2, CO, SPM, CO2, CH4 were calculated 437081507, 592005417, 205312306, 1160386931, 1722935861, 1659463 Rials per year, respectively, which shows CO2 and CH4 gases impose the highest and lowest social cost to the environment, respectively. Moreover, total social cost based on the exchange rate and inflation rate approach was calculated about 4119381486 and 16383725983 billion Rials, respectively (after the coefficient factor was considered for constant prices in 1381). The calculations related to the estimation of the ecological footprint indicate that gasoline with 22.87 and natural gas with 9.33 hectares have created the greatest and the least ecological footprint. In addition, the total ecological footprint was calculated approximately 50.93 hectares. Conclusion: The social cost of pollutants in this study showed different results based on the volume of their emission. While the engine room had the largest share in greenhouse gas emissions with the amount of 26655364.69 Kg, the forklift trucks imposed the largest social cost with the amount of 1808115554 Rials due to the high emission rate of NOx, SPM and SO2 pollutants and also, the higher social cost of these three pollutants compared to the other ones. This method can be used as a model in calculating the social costs of released pollutants within industrial companies and the results can be monitored in the context of their environmental planning so that by identifying the centers of pollution and prioritizing them, correct budgeting should be set to reduce the amount of emissions and social cost of pollutants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) remain a global health challenge, and have elevated rates in Sub-Saharan Africa. HAIs impact patients and their families by causing illness, prolonged hospital stay, potential disability, excess costs and, sometimes, death. The costs of HAIs are increasing due to spreading antimicrobial resistance. A major risk factor for HAIs is lack of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH); environmental cleaning and healthcare waste management. In Sub-Saharan Africa, these services are lacking in at least 50% of healthcare facilities. To estimate the costs associated with HAIs at national level in 14 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Economic methodologies were employed to estimate the medical costs, productivity losses and value of premature death from HAIs, drawing on national statistics and published studies to populate the economic model. In 2022, the number of HAIs was estimated at 4.8 million, resulting in 500,000 deaths. Health-related economic losses amounted to US$13 billion per year, equivalent to 1.14% of combined gross domestic product and US$15.7 per capita. Healthcare costs were US$500 per HAI, and represented 5.6% of total health expenditure. The costs of providing basic WASH were US$0.91 per capita, which, if they reduced HAIs by 50%, would result in benefit–cost ratios of 1.6 (financial healthcare savings alone) and 8.6 (all economic benefits). HAIs have a major health and economic burden on African societies, and a significant proportion can be prevented. It is critical that health policy makers and practitioners dedicate policy space, resources and training to address HAIs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficient management of temporary infrastructure is pivotal for the success and sustainability of periodic fairs and festivals. Coordination among stakeholders involved in procurement, supply, and timely delivery is essential. The involvement of multiple stakeholders results in varying cost engagements at different levels. This study proposes a centralised operational framework for infrastructure distribution, potentially reducing overall costs. Focusing on West Midnapore district, India, the research aims to introduce a sustainable and cost-effective strategy for temporary infrastructure management. Recognising the significance of transportation in managing temporary infrastructures, the study emphasises reducing travel distances and minimising site occupancy time to enhance cost efficiency. Using a linear regression model, the required infrastructural goods for fairs in the district are quantified. A delivery schedule is devised, employing vehicle route planning techniques to determine reduced truck travel distances. Comparing different distribution frameworks, the study finds that a centralised approach utilising three trucks is the most sustainable and cost-effective solution. Moreover, it examines and quantifies the social cost incurred when infrastructure items exceed the allowed fair duration in the current system. Implementing this proposed approach enables stakeholders to balance sustainability cost-effectiveness and build an efficient infrastructure supply chain management.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Red Cross Society of China played a crucial role in distributing medical donations, but the initial efforts were inefficient and neglected medical personnel’s welfare. This study proposes a time-sensitive humanitarian distribution model that optimizes the social costs by integrating logistics and deprivation costs that cares about human suffering. We ues the Gini coefficient to evaluate delays in distribution, aiding trade-off analysis between logistics efforts and social welfare. Our findings show that the proposed model improves the Gini coefficient by an average of 33.96% across 500 scenarios. Additionally, investing 23.7% more in logistics costs reduces the Gini coefficient by 0.1, enhancing the social welfare of medical supplies distribution. Sensitivity analysis examines the impact of time delay and cost investment on the Gini coefficient, offering insights into balancing logistics investments and social welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid development of modern agriculture, the prevention and control of crop diseases and insect pests has become an important part to ensure the safety of agricultural production, the quality of agricultural products and the safety of agricultural ecological environment. Although the effect of traditional chemical prevention and control technology is remarkable, the health risks and environmental problems brought by it should not be ignored. As a green and environmentally friendly means of prevention and control, biological prevention and control technology has gradually become a hot research topic and a trend of agricultural production. This paper is intended to comprehensively evaluate the social costs of biological control technologies for crop diseases and pests, including the health risks reduced, environmental improvements, economic benefits, and barriers to promotion, and put forward corresponding policy recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The majority of inguinal hernias are usually paucisymptomatic, so are restored electively. The main purpose of this study is to assess the trends in hernia repair surgery before and during the pandemic period, analyzing an Italian hospital series of 390 patients, in an attempt to quantify the negative impact regarding social costs derived from the Covid‐19 outbreak. Moreover, we want to focus on the concept of apparently minor pathology as hernioplasty which could represent a life‐threatening condition for patients. Methods: The study population consisted of all patients operated for inguinal hernia in a General Surgery Unit from 2019 to 2021, divided into a pre‐pandemic and a pandemic period. Results: The Covid‐19 pandemic increased urgent operations in a complicated setting. A statistically significant difference was found regarding the trend of hospitalization length as well as a strong positive correlation between the severity of hernia and the hospitalization length. Conclusions: During the pandemic, it has been registered a mishandling of inguinal hernias to the detriment of both the healthcare system and patients, due to multifactorial issues and, in particular, to the restrictions imposed by the regional government that erroneously declassed hernia pathology as a minor problem for public health. We do believe that patients, after diagnosis of inguinal hernia, should learn the Taxis maneuver for its feasibility and ease of execution, in order to reduce access to emergencies in many cases and likewise to better pain and discomfort perceived, even in the event of unexpected worldwide healthcare scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New York State (NYS) has set strict greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets across all sectors of its economy, including the heating sector. This study examines the financial value and environmental impacts of the residential space heating sector in NYS under different GHG abatement options by comparing the existing natural gas heating pathway with three potential GHG abatement pathways: renewable natural gas (RNG), hydrogen blended into RNG, and air-source heat pumps (ASHPs). These pathways are analyzed via a comparative net present value (NPV) framework from 2022 to 2042 with the emission reduction represented as a revenue stream that serves as a function of the social cost of GHGs. The investment timing of each of these pathways is also accounted for to reflect the pathways' varying deployment timelines. The ASHP pathway with a 10% financial discount rate and a 2% social cost of the GHG discount rate achieves the lowest NPV. The RNG pathway achieves the highest NPV. A sensitivity analysis determines the impact of key factors on the NPV results. This study aims to inform policymakers, homeowners, and stakeholders of the potential benefits and costs of each of the four pathways to aid them in their decision-making process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intrinsically, the attainment of optimal solution via the Ant Colony System (ACS) algorithm essentially depends on the attractiveness of the quantity of pheromone on a given path. This leads to neglecting the velocity of the ant which constitutes an important nature-based heuristic information. The aim of this paper is to improve an existing ACS algorithm by integrating ant velocity, an insight gained from the Intelligent Water Drops (IWD) algorithm. A bi-objective model was formulated and adapted into the proposed ACS algorithm to optimize route length and social cost associated with various activities along the route. The solution technique was based on the min-max approach. A 14-node road network data, measuring distances and social costs was used in validating the algorithm. Both the benchmark algorithm and our proposed ant velocity-based ACS algorithm yielded the same bi-optimal solution (12km,GHS7) of distance and social cost along the path 1→4→7→11→12→14. The proposed ACS algorithm converges at the 127th iteration, corresponding to approximately 3 s execution time. Obviously, the proposed ACS algorithm outperforms the benchmark algorithm which converges at the 207th iteration, with approximately 5 s execution time. Therefore, the proposed ACS algorithm has outperformed the benchmark ACS algorithm in respect of time (or the number of iterations needed for convergence) by approximately 39 %. Evidently, with a velocity of 0.2445 ms−2, the optimal time taken by the best ant to complete the tour is approximately 27 s.

The transportation sector has garnered significant attention recently due to its substantial impact on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which have contributed to global warming and adversely impacted human health and the environment. This study estimates the social cost of carbon (SCC) in Qatar pertaining to road transportation, explicitly focusing on the greenhouse gases (GHGs) of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide for the years 2030, 2040, and 2050. The Low Emissions Analysis Platform (LEAP) was utilized to formulate various scenarios: (1) a public transport scenario in comparison to the baseline scenario; (2) a scenario with improved fuel economy in comparison to the baseline scenario; and (3) a scenario with improved fuel economy in comparison to the public transport scenario. Once the scenarios were developed, the emission reduction values were derived. Subsequently, the Social Cost of Carbon Explorer tool was employed to assess the SCC for each gas. According to the study findings, when comparing the public transport scenario with the baseline scenario, it was observed that the total SCC benefit in 2030, 2040, and 2050 would amount to USD 380,005,861. Furthermore, when comparing the scenario in which fuel economy is improved to the baseline scenario, the total SCC benefit would amount to USD 3,363,559. In conclusion, upon comparing the scenario of improved fuel economy with that of public transportation, it is determined that the total SCC benefit would amount to USD 5,980,883. The calculation of the SCC is expected to provide valuable insights for decision making pertaining to the economic implications of different strategies to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions in Qatar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Claims of discrimination made by high‐status groups (e.g., White people, men) have become increasingly more common. To understand ingroup support for such claims, we examined perceivers' group identification (GID) and perceived social costs as contributing factors. In addition, we examined the impact of the claimant blaming 'diversity' as a source of discrimination to see if this may influence perceptions of social costs and ultimately support. Across three experiments, we found that GID predicted support for the claimant among Whites and men when the claim blamed diversity, which was mediated by perceptions of group‐level social costs, suggesting that mentioning diversity as part of their claim may influence support for the claimant. We found similar patterns of results for liking and behavioral intentions. Results suggest that it is important to examine aspects of the claim and perceivers' perceptions of social costs when examining support for discrimination claimants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Vitiligo is an acquired disorder of pigmentation, characterized by the development of white patches on the skin, often with a typical symmetrical distribution and progressive extension [1,2]. Although vitiligo does not cause direct physical impairment, it can produce a relevant psychosocial burden. Despite this burden, effective treatments are lacking, emphasizing the need for new therapeutic options. Objectives: The aim of this study was to systematically scan the scientific literature for studies dealing with vitiligo epidemiology. Additionally, the study aimed to assess the social costs of vitiligo, ultimately raising awareness about the societal impact of the condition. The focus was on Italian data. Methods: Our research employed a comprehensive methodology. For the epidemiology, we systematically searched PubMed database up to October 2023 and complemented the analysis with Real World Evidence. For social costs, we conducted an in-depth literature review, administered a web-survey to 20 Italian dermatologists and conducted an equivalent number of interviews during the same period in March 2022. Results: The data suggest that in Italy the prevalence of vitiligo increases with age, and it varies from 0.19% (age 18-21) to 0.6% (age >45) [3,4]. We estimated 152,000 patients diagnosed with Non-Segmental Vitiligo (NSV) in Italy; based on Body Surface Area (BSA), 33% are Not Severe, 31% Mild, 27% Moderate/Severe, 9% Very Severe. The yearly social costs of vitiligo amount to €0.5Bln. Conclusions: There is a remarkable association of vitiligo with anxiety and depression [5,6,7,8,9], and Mental Health is associated with 30% of social costs. Moreover, vitiligo social costs distribution highlights inequity, with patients bearing 55% of them.

• Recycling plastic waste as partial replacement of natural aggregates in concrete. • Material flow diagram using STAN for determining plastic waste generation. • Economic analysis of concrete considering direct, social and environmental costs. • Total cost decreases with increase in replacement without compromising strength. • Economic and environmental sustainable method of plastic waste management. Plastic waste management is one of the major global challenges at present. Recycling single used plastic waste as partial replacement of natural aggregates in concrete may reduce problems regarding mismanagement of plastic waste and unsustainable utilisation of natural resources as aggregates. This concept has been explored in many studies and positive results are obtained, but it has not been materialized at a large scale due to the uncertainty regarding economic viability. The present study therefore focuses on the economic aspects of using Polyethylene based fine aggregates and Polyethylene Terephthalate based coarse aggregates as partial replacement (10%, 20%, 30% and 40%) of natural fine and coarse aggregates separately and simultaneously, with special emphasis given on environmental and social cost. A material flow diagram using STAN is first developed to calculate plastic waste generation. An industrial survey has been conducted to estimate production cost of plastic aggregates, while social cost as WTP is determined through CVM method. The result shows that the total cost of concrete decreases with increase of replacement percentage and cost reduction varies between 0.65% and 7.58% compare to conventional concrete depending on the percentage and type of replacement without compromising strength. So, alongside being hugely beneficial to environment and society in terms of reduction of leachate and greenhouse gas generation, micro-plastic pollution, requirement of landfill area, mosquito borne diseases, erosion, sedimentation, land loss etc.; the concept of recycling plastic waste as partial replacement of natural aggregates in concrete has been proved to be economically viable and beneficial too. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is effective for pain relief in children and adolescents with functional abdominal pain disorders (FAPDs). However, few studies have focused on the FAPDs specifically and the medium-term or long-term results of CBT. In this meta-analysis, we investigated the efficacy of CBT in pediatric FAPDs and unclassified chronic or recurrent abdominal pain (CAP and RAP, respectively). We searched the PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases for related randomized controlled trials until August 2021. Eventually, 10 trials with 872 participants were included. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed, and data on two primary and four secondary outcomes of interest were extracted. We used the standardized mean difference (SMD) to measure the same outcome, and precisions of effect sizes were reported as 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We found that CBT had significantly positive effects on reducing pain intensity immediately (SMD: −0.54 [CI: −0.9, −0.19], p = 0.003), 3 months after the intervention (SMD: −0.55; [CI: −1.01, −0.1], p = 0.02) and 12 months after the intervention (SMD: −0.32; [CI: −0.56, −0.08], p = 0.008). CBT also reduced the severity of gastrointestinal symptoms, depression, and solicitousness, improved the quality of life and decreased the total social cost. Future studies should consider uniform interventions in the control group and comparing different CBT delivery methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this narrative review is to analyze, through the estimates made in previous studies, the costs of medical, physical, and mental care, productivity losses, costs for the child protection system, and costs for the criminal justice system of violence against children and youth, with special emphasis on sexual violence. The reviewed studies confirm that violence in early stages of development is associated with greater use of health services and other resources, which represent a significant public investment that must be taken into account. These works have limitations that derive from the incomplete or unreliable data included regarding mortality and morbidity related to violence against children and that imply variable estimates of their costs, which in Spain range from 17 billion euros for adverse childhood experiences to around €1 billion for sexual violence. Reliable data on the costs of violence against children is needed to make better-informed decisions about financial investment in its prevention and treatment, as well as to raise awareness of its scale and impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women may suppress behavior and emotions during sexism, impairing subsequent self-control. However, suppression likely depends on social reprisal versus benefit of confronting (i.e., social cost). Experiment 1 (N = 56) found behavioral self-control (i.e., Stroop task performance) was unaffected by sexism. Yet, sexism led to exaggerated amplitudes of the error-related negativity (ERN). Experiment 2 (N = 114) examined the role of confrontation in response to sexism, with women instructed to suppress confrontation during a sexist interaction exhibiting longer reaction times and lower ERN amplitudes. Conversely, women encouraged to confront sexism exhibited heightened ERN amplitudes, as found in Experiment 1, which were mediated by negative affect. The findings suggest sexism reduces women's self-control, but only within environments that may suppress confrontation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coal has been dominating the electricity supply in Indonesia, especially in long-term power generation from fossil energy. This dominance is due to lower production costs in coal-fired power plant generation. However, this low price is only based on monetary costs and ignores the social costs. Therefore, this study aims to quantify the social costs of coal-fired generation. Using QUERI-AirPacts modeling, the present study quantifies the social costs resulting from the Tenayan Raya coal-fired generation in Riau, Indonesia. It includes the levelized cost of electricity and health costs into the generation costs. After that, this study calculates the net present value, internal rate return, and project payback period. The study found that as much as $50.22/MWh was the levelized cost of electricity. While $15.978/MWh or $0.015978/kWh was the social cost that was not included in the generating cost. At the electricity production level of 1,380,171.69 MWh per year, there is an expected extra cost of $22,052,383.30 uncounted when externalities are included. For instance, the net present value (NPV) is lower and even negative when external costs are included (–$24,062,274.19) compared to $176,108,091.52 when externalities are not considered. The internal rate of return (IRR) is much higher when the social costs are not considered. The payback period is also shorter when the social costs are excluded than when the externalities are included. This global number indicates that the inclusion of external costs would impact NPV, IRR, and the payback period. This result implies that the government should internalize the external cost to stimulate the electricity producers to conduct cost-benefit analyses. The cost-benefit analysis mechanism would lead the producers to be more efficient.

One of the most important and significant issues in the present study is how to apply economic models in identifying and establishing liability rules. The function of models in analyzing the legal phenomena, including liability rules, is to understand the decision-making logic when encountering interdisciplinary issues so that decisions made by decision-making entities can be optimized in the liability system. The application of the liability rules to achieve the optimization goal by economics makes the nature of the issue raised in these models interdisciplinary. For example, the criterion for the efficiency of liability rules is to create optimal economic incentives to apply care and activity. In fact, the problem facing the presented economic model regarding the rules of liability is to establish the liability rules in cases of unilateral incidents in such a way that the decision variables such as care and activity level, optimality, and the goal contained in the objective function are realized. While emphasizing the role of modeling in identifying and establishing liability rules, the present study strives to first determine the unilateral incident cases and present the criterion for determining these cases and second to conduct analysis of the strict rules of liability and negligence in the cases of unilateral incidents based on the modeling approach. This issue has not been addressed in the research conducted so far. Accordingly, this study presents an example of the application of the modeling method, which indeed a problem with an interdisciplinary nature is presented.

Prompt and appropriate treatment of chronic low back pain (cLBP) is of the utmost importance for preventing relevant disability, high burden of disease, and increasing costs for the healthcare system. Recently, the concept of functional impairment has been associated with any type of chronic pain, and mounting attention has been paid to extending the aims of treatment beyond mere pain remission, including restoration of working capacity, everyday functioning, mobility, and quality of life. Nevertheless, a shared definition of functionality is still lacking. Notably, different specialists involved in the treatment of cLBP such as general practitioners, orthopedists, pain therapists, and physiatrists, and patients themselves have different opinions on what "functional impairment" actually means. On these premises, a qualitative interview study was performed to investigate how the concept of "functionality" is interpreted by different specialists involved in the management of cLBP, and by patients. Overall, all different specialists agreed that functionality should be assessed in clinical practice. However, in spite of several instruments available for evaluating functionality, no homogeneity of behavior is observable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High sodium (Na) diet is one of the leading behavioural risks of disease identified in the Singapore Burden of Disease Study. We aim to estimate the cost attributable to a high Na diet in Singapore in 2019 from a societal perspective by employing a prevalence-based approach in cost-of-illness studies. We extracted national-level healthcare data and population attributable fractions by sex and age. Costs included direct and indirect costs from inpatient treatment and productivity losses. In 2019, the annual societal cost attributable to a high Na diet was conservatively estimated to be USA$262 million (95 % uncertainty interval (UI) 218, 359 million). At least USA$67·8 million (95 % UI 48·4, 120 million) and USA$194 million (95 % UI 153, 274 million) could be saved on healthcare and indirect costs, respectively, if the daily Na intake of Singaporeans was reduced to an average of 3 g. Overall, males had higher costs compared with females at USA$221 million (95 % UI 174, 312 million) and USA$41·1 million (95 % UI 33·5, 61·7 million), respectively. Productivity loss from foregone wages due to premature mortality had the largest cost at USA$191 million (95 % UI 150, 271 million). CVD had the largest healthcare expenditure at USA$61·4 million (95 % UI 41·6, 113 million), driven by ischaemic heart disease at USA$41·0 million (95 % UI 21·4, 88·9 million). Our study found that reducing Na intake could reduce future healthcare expenditures and productivity losses. This result is vital for policy evaluation in a rapidly ageing society like Singapore, where the burden of diseases associated with high Na diet is expected to increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world is changing into a village due to the common need to meet the population’s energy demands. Scholars link such transformation with energy’s relevance in meeting economic and social development and improving human welfare. This paper aims to evaluate the social cost savings of solar energy projects funded by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) in Egypt. The paper provides an overview of the EBRD's involvement in promoting renewable energy in Egypt and its impact on the country's energy mix. The paper analyzes the three solar energy projects funded by the EBRD and their contribution to reducing carbon emissions and promoting sustainable development. Through calculating the avoided carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and the saved social costs of these projects, the study concludes that the contribution of the EBRD is substantial, which highlights the importance of partnering in renewable energy to achieve sustainable development goals and mitigate climate change.

The status signaling hypothesis suggests that inconspicuous plumages are an honest signal of subordination in social animals, including those exhibiting delayed plumage maturation. In addition, body size may also determine the outcome of aggressive interactions and shape dominance relationships. We observed flocks of Saffron Finches (Sicalis flaveola brasiliensis) during the non-breeding season to investigate whether the probability of winning an aggressive interaction varies according to the plumage color class (yellow female, yellow male, and dull bird of both sexes), morphology (body mass, wing length, and tail length), and plumage color variation (reflectance of yellow breast feathers). In this subspecies, younger individuals of both sexes breed with duller plumage and present late maturation to yellow, definitive plumage. We found that, in general, yellow females were more likely to win aggressive interactions against conspecifics (of any plumage color class) than yellow males and dull birds, irrespective of plumage color variation or morphology. In contrast, yellow males were not more likely to win aggressive interactions against conspecifics than dull birds. When comparing yellow females to each other and yellow males to each other, in general, larger birds and birds with brighter plumages were more likely to win the aggressive interactions. Our results partially support the status signaling hypothesis, suggesting that plumage color class has a major influence on social dominance status, whereas gradual variation in morphology and plumage coloration signals fighting ability within plumage color classes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the metropolises, it is unlikely to use merely solar and wind energy to pursue zero carbon building design. However, it would become possible if biofuel-driven trigeneration systems (BDTS) are adopted. It is thus essential to assess the application opportunity of BDTS in a holistic way. In this study, BDTS offered definite primary energy saving of up to 15% and carbon emissions reduction of at least 86% in different types of non-residential buildings as compared to the conventional systems. With 24/7 operation for the hotel and hospital buildings, the corresponding BDTS could even achieve zero carbon emissions. All the BDTS primed with compression-ignition internal combustion engine were not economically viable even in running cost due to the high local biodiesel price level. The BDTS primed with spark-ignition engine and fueled by biogas, however, would have economic merit when carbon price was considered for the conventional systems that fully utilize fossil fuels. Adoption of carbon tax and social cost could have the payback ceilings of 8 years and 2 years respectively for most of building types. Consequently, the results could reflect the application potential of BDTS for non-residential buildings, leading the pathway to carbon neutrality for sustainable sub-tropical cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of investigators have explored the use of value of information (VOI) analysis to evaluate alternative information collection procedures in diverse decision‐making contexts. This paper presents an analytic framework for determining the value of toxicity information used in risk‐based decision making. The framework is specifically designed to explore the trade‐offs between cost, timeliness, and uncertainty reduction associated with different toxicity‐testing methodologies. The use of the proposed framework is demonstrated by two illustrative applications which, although based on simplified assumptions, show the insights that can be obtained through the use of VOI analysis. Specifically, these results suggest that timeliness of information collection has a significant impact on estimates of the VOI of chemical toxicity tests, even in the presence of smaller reductions in uncertainty. The framework introduces the concept of the expected value of delayed sample information, as an extension to the usual expected value of sample information, to accommodate the reductions in value resulting from delayed decision making. Our analysis also suggests that lower cost and higher throughput testing also may be beneficial in terms of public health benefits by increasing the number of substances that can be evaluated within a given budget. When the relative value is expressed in terms of return‐on‐investment per testing strategy, the differences can be substantial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In species in which individuals defend territories for long periods, it is common that rivals in neighbouring territories learn to recognize each other or their territory boundaries and reduce their mutual aggressiveness to decrease the costs of territorial defence ('dear enemy' phenomenon). Although the dear enemy phenomenon is generally evaluated in terms of aggressive behaviours between rivals, the ability to recognize neighbours ('dear enemy recognition') may affect other behaviours. In particular, antipredator behaviours may be mediated by the status of rivals (familiar neighbours or unfamiliar intruders) because individuals may be more resistant to escape from predators if the nearby rivals are unfamiliar intruders than familiar neighbours that have not historically infringed on their territory. In this scenario, the ability to recognize familiar neighbours would affect an individual's escape decisions. Here, we evaluated the hypothesis that resident males of the lizard Eurolophosaurus nanuzae adopt lower-risk antipredator behaviours after encountering a familiar neighbour than after encountering an unfamiliar intruder. For this, we measured lizards' flight initiation distance and time spent in a refuge under three conditions: after no recent contact with other males, after previous exposure to a familiar neighbour and after previous exposure to an unfamiliar intruder. We observed lower flight initiation distances for males that had encountered an unfamiliar intruder compared to a familiar neighbour, and we observed the greatest flight initiation distances when the same lizards had no recent contact with other individuals (familiar neighbours or unfamiliar intruders). As expected, lizards that had no contact with rivals spent more time hidden compared to lizards in the other treatments, but the time spent hidden was similar when lizards were exposed to a familiar neighbour or an unfamiliar intruder. These results indicate the existence of an important cognitive mechanism that allows individuals to recognize rivals along with their interaction history and modulate their initial escape strategy accordingly. • We tested new predictions of the optimal escape theory in a lizard species. • We found that prior experience with an intruder affected male antipredator strategy. • We demonstrate an effect of the dear enemy phenomenon on escape behaviours. • We suggest the existence of a cognitive mechanism modulating escape strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Purpose Shipping is pivotal for global commerce, yet its externalities are not yet fully set into context, especially with reference to environmental impact. Shipping is a practise developed from the dawn of history. Its manifestation requires the introduction of relevant supporting industries as well, such as port, cargo, and logistics operations. The holistic shipping system has been growing with its main parameter pertaining to accounting cost minimisation. Yet, the shipping ecosystem has been able to exacerbate environmental, social, and health costs that in the end may prove that shipping, in the way that it is conducted, may not be as profitable as it may seem. Method This paper introduces a framework for the total cost of ownership in shipping, which includes a holistic approach as to the true costs associated with shipping practises. Through a structured literature review the relevant costs are identified and assessed, providing a complete framework as to the actual cost of shipping. Findings Shipping may appear to be profitable in some cases, but the bulk of its profit is based on practises that incur a plethora of costs that are externalised. This paper provides a clearer understanding of the total cost of shipping and the subsequent need of a paradigm shift, so that shipping may be able to portray its potential with reference to societal and environmental benefits. Conclusion Through frameworks such as the one presented in this work, activities and practises may be assessed as to their true impact and footprint and claim sustainability through a solid prism of holistic analysis and true profit for humanity, rather than focusing on accounting cost and turning a blind eye at other social, environmental, and health costs.

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The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of changes in parking fee policy on residents' willingness to own a car, based on a survey of Yulha in Gimhae, South Korea, a representative new town with a relatively high rate of car use due to lack of public transportation. This study, using parking demand function, analysed the response of car ownership intention to parking cost and examined social cost and deadweight loss according to the change in parking fee and its policy effect. The results of the analysis found that the elasticity of demand for parking fees was 6.7 times higher in the case of the intention to give up the purchase of an additional car (0.043) compared to the intention to abandon the operation of the existing car (0.288). The marginal increase rate was 200% in Yulha New Town. The results suggested that it would be desirable to raise the parking registration cost up to three times higher than the current level, from the point of view of society as a whole. In other words, the additional burden on service beneficiaries for the purpose of increasing social welfare was found to be sufficiently acceptable in terms of social systems optimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the aftermath of a hurricane, humanitarian logistics plays a critical role in delivering relief items to the affected areas in a timely fashion. This paper proposes a novel stochastic look-ahead framework that implements a two-stage stochastic programming model in a rolling horizon approach to address the evolving uncertain logistics system state during the post-hurricane humanitarian logistics operations. The two-stage stochastic programming model that executes in this rolling horizon approach is formulated as a mixed-integer programming problem. The model aims to minimize the total cost incurred in the logistics operations, which consist of transportation cost and social cost. The social cost is measured as a function of deprivation for unsatisfied demand. Our extensive numerical results and sensitivity analysis demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach in reducing the total cost incurred during the post-hurricane relief logistics operations compared to the two-stage stochastic programming model implemented in a static fashion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental contest models typically make two standard assumptions, reimbursement rates and environmental damages are exogenously determined. Previous research that makes these assumptions conclude the equilibrium total effort level with reimbursement is greater than if reimbursement is disallowed. Assuming a regulator determines reimbursement rates and a firm controls environmental damages, this research finds different results, some counter to previous studies. A regulator can obtain reimbursement rates that minimize the social cost as the sum of environmental damage and abatement cost. In particular, we show that the reimbursement rates can induce the environmental conflicts to go to settlement. We also show that even if environmental conflicts go to trial, asymmetric reimbursement can reduce the total effort level caused by the conflicts as well as the total social cost as the sum of the social cost and the expected loss of the firm minus the expected payoff of the citizens' group caused by the conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: To assess time- and cost-savings in relation to active time of health care professional (HCP) and resource consumption of administering obinutuzumab as a short duration infusion (SDI) in patients in treatment for Follicular Lymphoma (FL). METHODS: A cost-minimization model was developed to compare resource consumption and cost of the obinutuzumab SDI relative to obinutuzumab regular infusion rate (RIR) for the previously untreated and rituximab-refractory FL. Monetary valuation of resource and time allocated to treatment as a whole was carried out from the Italian Hospital and the societal perspective. Direct costs included HCP costs for drug preparation and administration activities, non-drug consumable costs, drug acquisition costs, and formal care costs. Indirect costs included the lost productivity of patients and informal caregivers. All costs (updated to 2021-value) were estimated by multiplying resource use by the unit cost of each resource. Evidence on resource use and unit costs were retrieved from scientific literature and standard Italian tariffs. A deterministic sensitivity analysis was used to test the results. RESULTS: The administration time of obinutuzumab SDI is shorter than with obinutuzumab RIR, with a difference of 102 minutes per patient and for every cycle of administration beyond the first one. On average, the cost of HCP time invested in the preparation and administration of obinutuzumab RIR is € 92 during cycle 2 and from cycle 2 onwards, compared to € 54 per cycle of obinutuzumab SDI. Overall, the cost from the societal perspective is estimated to be € 38,698 for obinutuzumab RIR and € 37,692 for obinutuzumab SDI, resulting in a cost-saving per patient of € 1,007 (2.6%). CONCLUSIONS: The application of obinutuzumab SDI schedule allows substantial reduction of hospital stay, improving quality of life of patient and caregiver and reducing costs and health care system burden. The time-savings with obinutuzumab SDI may improve clinical unit capacity by optimizing chair utilization and/or allowing rearrangements of the nurse residual time into valuable supplementary activities, spanning from more patient-centered clinical support to research and learning activity

This paper reviews and analyzes the impact of residue burning on the environment and human health, and the influence of ex-situ and in-situ residue management on reducing pollution and improving soil health, crop yield, and farmers' economic benefits. Paddy is cultivated on 43.8 Mha in India, producing 118.43 Mt grain and an estimated 165.8 Mt straw. Burning is the most common practice for managing rice crop residues mainly due to its simplicity, low cost, increased mechanical harvesting, short window between rice harvest and wheat sowing, and lack of viable uses for residues. Around 50 Mt of rice straw is burned annually, nearly half of which occurs in northwestern India during October/November. Burning residue is a major contributor to air pollution, emitting around 1.5 Mt particulate matter, 150 Mt carbon dioxide, and other greenhouse gases (e.g., NO2, SO2, CO, CH4, NH3) and volatile organic compounds, resulting in a wide range of respiratory infections in humans, reduced soil nutrient and carbon inputs, and disturbed soil microbial activity. In-situ residue management using a Happy Seeder, Super straw management system, paddy straw chopper cum spreader, reversible moldboard plow, or no-till seeder incorporates or mulches residues, avoiding burnings. These operations are economically profitable as they reduce costs, increase yields, or both. In-situ residue management, i.e., incorporation or mulching improves the soil's physical, chemical and biological properties and is considered better for improving soil health than residue removal. Ex-situ residue management for biofuel, biochar, electricity generation or bale making is also profitable for the environment and reduces pollutant emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza has a significant impact on the health care system and also on production and economic systems. Vaccinated health care workers (HCWs) are more likely to have improved productivity compared to unvaccinated workers. The study aim was to estimate the economic and fiscal impact of an influenza vaccination program for HCWs in Italy. We performed a cost analysis aimed to estimate the indirect costs (productivity losses due to working days lost) and the increase in tax revenues derived from the increase in vaccination coverage among HCWs. Assuming an incremental increase in vaccination coverage of 10% per year over a period of 5 years, total savings could be obtained in terms of a reduction in productivity losses equal to −€4,475,497.16 and an increase in tax revenues of €327,158.84. This revenue could be used to finance other health interventions. Our results are fundamental in view of the sustainability of health systems and of a value-based allocation of health resources. Therefore, a complete social perspective, including the fiscal impact of flu vaccination, should be adopted to assess the economic value of influenza vaccines. Currently, health policies based on the whole value of flu vaccination are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Palliative care involves providing symptomatic relief from the pain and stress of a severe illness to markedly improve the quality of life for both the patients and their families. It imposes high indirect costs on the patients. The study was conducted at SGPGIMS, which caters to 500 head-and-neck cancer patients annually. Out of these, 30--40% of cases require dedicated palliative care. Unfortunately, often, when patients reach the stage of palliative care, they have exhausted their all financial reserves. Therefore, a cost analysis of total cost incurred (including out-of-pocket expenditure and social cost) during palliative care in cases of head-and-neck cancer at a Government Regional Cancer Centre was undertaken. Material and Methods: The study is a descriptive study and the study sample consisted of (a) patients who had undergone surgery, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy and had recurred/relapsed and were now candidates for palliative care and (b) patients who presented de novo to the Regional Cancer Centre, SGPGIMS with advanced-stage disease, where the cure was not possible. The expenditure incurred was obtained retrospectively and prospectively from the study samples. Results: The out-of-pocket expenditure per patient per day was INR 2044.21. The social cost per patient per day was INR 518.21. Out of the total expenditure of INR 2562.42/patient/day, 80% of the cost was out-of-pocket expenditure and the remaining 20% was social cost borne by the patient. Conclusion: The study thus added to perspective on the average expenditure on out-of-pocket expenses and social costs being incurred as of date, while getting palliative care for head-and-neck cancer at a Regional Cancer Centre. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recognised as a contributor to the global burden of disease, drug use has been a source of continuous concern among practitioners and policy makers and a field for methodological debate among researchers. The consequences of substance use have always challenged the healthcare, social care, law enforcement and the legal system. This paper explores several methods used in estimating the costs and impact attributable to the use of illicit drugs with the aim of getting a broad understanding of the current research and the use thereof by practitioners and policy. The desk review behind this paper includes government reports, analyses and publications of relevant bodies, research done by various authors and organisations, academic investigations and findings from literature review. The case study includes an estimation of the burden of overdose deaths measured in years of life lost (YLL) and explores possible shortcomings that represent a challenge for research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, floating offshore wind turbines have attracted more attention as a new renewable energy resource while bottom-fixed offshore wind turbines reach their limit of water depth. Various projects have been proposed with the rapid increase in installed floating wind power capacity, but the economic aspect remains as a biggest issue. To figure out sensible approaches for saving costs, a comparison analysis of the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) between floating and bottom-fixed offshore wind turbines was carried out. The LCOE was reviewed from a social perspective and a cost breakdown and a literature review analysis were used to itemize the costs into its various components in each level of power plant and system integration. The results show that the highest proportion in capital expenditure of a floating offshore wind turbine results in the substructure part, which is the main difference from a bottom-fixed wind turbine. A floating offshore wind turbine was found to have several advantages over a bottom-fixed wind turbine. Although a similarity in operation and maintenance cost structure is revealed, a floating wind turbine still has the benefit of being able to be maintained at a seaport. After emphasizing the cost-reduction advantages of a floating wind turbine, its LCOE outlook is provided to give a brief overview in the following years. Finally, some estimated cost drivers, such as economics of scale, wind turbine rating, a floater with mooring system, and grid connection cost, are outlined as proposals for floating wind LCOE reduction.

Background: Social capital theory conceptualizes accessed status (the socioeconomic status of social contacts) as interpersonal resources that generate positive health returns, while social cost theory suggests that accessed status can harm health due to the sociopsychological costs of generating and maintaining these relationships. Evidence for both hypotheses has been observed in higher-income countries, but not in more resource-constrained settings.We therefore investigated whether the dual functions of accessed status on health may be patterned by its interaction with network structure and functions among an older population in rural South Africa. Method: We used baseline survey data from the HAALSI study (“Health and Aging in Africa: a Longitudinal Study of an INDEPTH Community in South Africa”) among 4,379 adults aged 40 and older. We examined the direct effect of accessed status (measured as network members’ literacy), as well as its interaction with network size and instrumental support, on life satisfaction and self-rated health. Results: In models without interactions, accessed status was positively associated with life satisfaction but not self-rated health. Higher accessed status was positively associated with both outcomes for those with fewer personal contacts. Interaction effects were further patterned by gender, being most health-protective for women with a smaller network and most health-damaging for men with a larger network. Conclusions: Supporting social capital theory, we find that having higher accessed status is associated with better health and well-being for older adults in a setting with limited formal support resources. However, the explanatory power of both theories appears to depending on other key factors, such as gender and network size, highlighting the importance of contextualizing theories in practice.

Transport networks play a critical role for living communities, as they facilitate the exchange of people and goods and foster economic growth. Improving their resilience against seismic hazards, among which liquefaction is by far one of the most significant and complex, is consistent with most of the Sustainable Development Goals pinpointed by the United Nations' Agenda. In this paper, an original methodological framework, combining innovative Geo-statistical approaches to analyze soil properties, prediction models for soil liquefaction, and calibrated transport demand models providing the social and economic cost associated with seismic-induced road damages and closures within a renewed Geographical Information Systems (GIS) workspace, is proposed. In particular, based on traditional risk assessment evaluation, an innovative approach to evaluate the exposure in terms of economic loss due to lack of accessibility is presented. The methodology is applied to a district area in northern Italy that underwent a recent seismic event that caused several soil liquefaction phenomena. Results provided by a sensitivity analysis on a stochastic (return period) basis are derived: as the seismic intensity increases, the total social costs increase, but the trend of the rates due to traffic delays and the loss of accessibility are irregular. Although further simulation scenarios need to be undertaken, the proposed methodology seems to provide an effective planning tool to evaluate preventive strategies aimed at improving the resilience of transport networks against liquefaction risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Shipping is pivotal for global commerce, yet its externalities are not yet fully set into context, especially with reference to environmental impact. Shipping is a practise developed from the dawn of history. Its manifestation requires the introduction of relevant supporting industries as well, such as port, cargo, and logistics operations. The holistic shipping system has been growing with its main parameter pertaining to accounting cost minimisation. Yet, the shipping ecosystem has been able to exacerbate environmental, social, and health costs that in the end may prove that shipping, in the way that it is conducted, may not be as profitable as it may seem. Method: This paper introduces a framework for the total cost of ownership in shipping, which includes a holistic approach as to the true costs associated with shipping practises. Through a structured literature review the relevant costs are identified and assessed, providing a complete framework as to the actual cost of shipping. Findings: Shipping may appear to be profitable in some cases, but the bulk of its profit is based on practises that incur a plethora of costs that are externalised. This paper provides a clearer understanding of the total cost of shipping and the subsequent need of a paradigm shift, so that shipping may be able to portray its potential with reference to societal and environmental benefits. Conclusion: Through frameworks such as the one presented in this work, activities and practises may be assessed as to their true impact and footprint and claim sustainability through a solid prism of holistic analysis and true profit for humanity, rather than focusing on accounting cost and turning a blind eye at other social, environmental, and health costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cycling has been promoted as a healthy, economical, and environmentally friendly mode of travel; however, its use has been hampered by a lack of safe infrastructure. This study revisits the political economy theorems of Adam Smith, Joseph Stiglitz, and Ronald Coase, to better guide government investment decisions on cycling infrastructure and to illustrate the trade-offs between the investment in cycling and automotive infrastructure. When improving infrastructure, there is no perfect policy, so a clear statement should be made to give the public a better understanding. This paper highlights that every road user should consider the difficulties of all other users on the road. Policy makers should consider cyclists’ difficulties and try to find an investment solution that maximizes both cyclists’ and car drivers’ benefits. Putting cycle paths on the side of roads constrains the value of both bicycles and cars; separate cycling paths should be considered. Political economy theorems include moral, wellbeing, and social costs that can help policy makers make the best investments in cycling infrastructure..

La consommation de drogues est observée dans toutes les sociétés humaines. Ces substances ont de multiples fonctions – recherche de plaisir, soin, convivialité, etc. – et des statuts qui évoluent dans le temps puisqu'elles peuvent être légales ou illégales, disponibles en accès libre ou sous certaines conditions. Elles sont souvent associées à la notion de danger. La mise en place d'indicateurs de suivi aide les pouvoirs publics à légiférer et à évaluer leur balance bénéfice-risque. Drug use is observed in all human societies. These substances have multiple functions – pleasure seeking, care, conviviality, etc. – and statuses that evolve over time since they can be either legal or illegal, freely available or under certain conditions. They are often associated with the notion of danger. The establishment of monitoring indicators helps public authorities to legislate and to evaluate their benefit-risk balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]