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Introduction: The aim of our study was to measure fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations in captive and free-ranging male and female mountain gazelles (Gazella gazella) during their circannual cycle. In addition, FGM concentrations were used to track the intensity of the adrenocortical response in mountain gazelles during the same period. Methods: Fecal samples were collected from the ground in the Hatay Mountain Gazelle Wildlife Development Area in the Hatay Province of Türkiye (36°32' N, 36°32' E) in each season of the year (December, April, July, September). The sex of the animals was determined by detecting the SRY gene of the Y chromosome in DNA isolated from the fecal samples. FGM was extracted from dried fecal samples with methanol, and its concentration was measured using a previously partially validated ELISA. Results and discussion: The results indicate that season is the most important factor explaining the variability in FGM concentrations in mountain gazelles. In animals of both sexes, the highest concentrations of FGM were observed in September. The values were significantly higher in the captive population, perhaps due to unpredictable stress. In July, FGM concentrations were low in both populations. As a result of the overall analysis across seasons, the comparison of FGM concentrations between captive and free-ranging animals revealed higher concentrations in captive animals only in September but not in other seasons, although higher concentrations have been previously reported for several wild captive species. Due to predation risk, the presence of offspring can be considered a critical point in the biological cycle for the welfare of free-ranging mountain gazelles, as suggested by the higher FGM concentrations in the freeranging population in July. The high number of visitors could be a challenge for mountain gazelles in captivity, as indicated by higher FGM concentrations during September. Sex had no effect on the FGM concentrations of either population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Understanding parasite diversity in wild and captive animal populations has critical implications for both individual animal health and ecosystem dynamics in a broader sense. In mountain gazelles (Gazella gazella), the gastrointestinal helminth community is poorly understood, limiting our efforts in the conservation of this endangered bovid species. This species has only two remaining populations in the world, including the isolated northernmost population in Türkiye. Objectives: To identify and compare the diversity and prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths in captive and free‐ranging populations of mountain gazelles in Hatay, Türkiye, and to assess potential zoonotic risks. Methods: In total, 105 fresh faecal samples, 45 individual samples and 60 faecal samples, representing 16 pools, from both captive and free‐ranging populations were collected and analysed using Fulleborn flotation, Benedek sedimentation and Bearman–Wetzel methods faecal flotation methods, including the McMaster technique to determine the severity of infection. Results: We detected 12 helminth taxa in our examination of faecal samples, including gastrointestinal nematodes, lungworms and trematodes. Parasites from the Trichostrongyloidea family demonstrated variable hatching stages and rates, potentially influenced by ambient conditions. We also detected one protozoan among the samples. Our results revealed a higher diversity of parasites in free‐ranging populations compared to captive ones. Conclusions: This study underscores the necessity for regular parasitological surveillance in both captive and free‐ranging wildlife populations for effective conservation management. It also contributes to the 'One Health' perspective by highlighting the potential zoonotic risks posed by parasites in wild ruminants. Our results have implications for the conservation and management of the mountain gazelle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leaf traits are good indicators of ecosystem functioning and plant adaptations to environmental conditions. We examined whether leaf trait variability at species and community levels in Mediterranean woody vegetation is explained by growth form, regeneration mode, and vegetation type. We studied several plant communities across five vegetation types – semi‐closed forest, open forest, closed shrubland, open shrubland, and scrubland – in southwestern Anatolia, Türkiye. Using linear mixed models, community‐weighted trait means, and principal component analysis, we tested how much variability in three leaf traits (specific leaf area, leaf thickness, and leaf area) is accounted for species, growth form, regeneration mode, and vegetation type. Despite a large amount of leaf trait variability both within‐ and among‐species existed, functional groups still accounted for a significant part of this variability. Resprouters had higher SLA and leaf area and lower leaf thickness than non‐resprouters. However, further functional separation in regeneration mode, by considering the propagule‐persistence trait and the seed bank locality, explained leaf trait variability better than only resprouting ability. Although no consistent pattern was observed in three leaf traits in the growth form, we found evidence for the difference in SLA and leaf thickness between shrubs and large shrubs, and subshrubs had smaller leaves than other growth forms. Vegetation type also accounted for a substantial amount of leaf trait variability. Specifically, plant communities in closed habitats had larger leaf area than open ones, and those in scrublands had higher SLA, lower leaf thickness, and lower leaf area than other vegetation types. Climate and phylogeny had limited contribution to the results obtained, with the exception of a significant phylogenetic effect in explaining the differences in SLA between resprouters and non‐resprouters. Our results suggest that multiple drivers are responsible for shaping plant trait variability in Mediterranean plant communities, including growth form, regeneration mode, and vegetation type. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scientists are becoming increasingly aware that disparities in opportunities for conducting and publishing research among scientists living under different socio-economic contexts have created pervasive biases and long-lasting impacts on our views of the natural world. These disparities are challenging the establishment of a global research agenda for a variety of disciplines, including seed ecology. Seed ecology has progressed enormously recently, but multiple barriers have hindered progress in the Global South where biodiversity and environmental complexity are highest. Here, we identify ten major challenges that seed ecologists from developing countries face in relation to planning, designing, conducting and publishing their research. We also propose several measures to overcome these challenges: (1) closing biodiversity knowledge shortfalls, (2) enhancing and creating long-term seed ecological networks, (3) supporting better infrastructure, (4) making fieldwork easier and safer, (5) unlocking funding opportunities, (6) promoting inclusive scientific meetings, (7) alleviating language barriers, (8) improving education, (9) shifting the notion of novelty and relevance and (10) supporting native seed markets. The authors recommend that the proposed solutions can be implemented by seed ecologists and the broader scientific community including funding agencies, research directors, journal editors and the academic publishing industry. Solutions can help mitigate multiple challenges simultaneously, thus offering a relatively inexpensive, fast and productive pathway for the development of seed ecology into a truly global research discipline that benefits scientists irrespective of their geographic location and background. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mediterranean Basin has distinct vegetation types shaped by fire, herbivory, and various human activities. Based on data from 83 belt transects of 10 × 40 m in 28 study sites for five physiognomic vegetation types (semi-closed forest, open forest, closed shrubland, open shrubland, and scrubland) in southwestern Anatolia (Turkey), we analyzed woody species diversity, woody community composition, and vegetation structure of study sites. We used the growth form and regeneration strategy for functional comparisons of physiognomic vegetation types. We found clear distinctions in diversity, species composition, and functional structure of woody plant community across five physiognomic vegetation types. The forest-shrubland-scrubland distinction was the most apparent one. Despite similarities in the woody species richness and Shannon diversity, open and closed vegetation states of forests and shrublands also differed regarding the density and cover of mature individuals and the density of saplings in different functional groups. Non-metric multidimensional scaling analyses and indicator species analyses also indicated clear distinctions among physiognomic vegetation types and openness states. Our findings indicate the necessity of a more complex description of vegetation types in the Mediterranean Basin. The results suggest that open and closed vegetation states of forests and shrublands are functionally distinct vegetation types. Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2022.2036845. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water level and submerged macrophytes are critical players for the functioning of shallow lake ecosystems; understanding how waterbird communities respond to changes in both can have important implications for conservation and management. Here, we evaluated the effects of changes in water level and submerged macrophyte status on wintering waterbird community size, functional group abundances, functional diversity (FD), and community assembly by using a dataset compiled over 50 years.We built generalised linear models to evaluate the effects of water level and submerged macrophyte status on the above‐listed attributes of the waterbird communities by using mid‐winter waterbird censuses, water level measurements, and submerged macrophyte surveys, along with submerged macrophyte macrofossil records from two shallow lakes in Turkey. Using a relevant set of functional traits, we defined functional groups, calculated four FD measures, and simulated null distributions of the FD measures for assessing assembly rules.We found that macrophyte‐dominated years had significantly higher abundances of waterbirds in one of the study lakes, and had more diving herbivores and omnivores in both lakes, while diving/scooping fish‐eating waterbird abundance was lower in macrophyte‐dominated years. Community size in Lake Beyşehir exhibited a negative association with water level; surprisingly, however, none of the functional group abundances and FD indices were significantly related to water level.In our study communities, standardised effect sizes of functional richness and functional dispersion—two indices that are particularly sensitive to community assembly processes—were mostly lower than those of randomly assembled communities, which implies functional clustering. Shifts to a scarce‐macrophyte state were associated with increases in these two indices, possibly due to either changes in the relative strength of environmental filtering and limiting similarity in community assembly or sampling of transitional communities. Further studies covering a wider range of the trophic/macrophyte status spectrum are needed to be certain.The results of this study indicate that shifts between abundant and scarce‐macrophyte states can have significant effects on wintering waterbird abundances, FD and community assembly. The results also suggest that shallow lakes in macrophyte‐dominated states can support more wintering waterbirds, especially diving omnivores, some of which are globally threatened. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, changes in fire activity have been observed in Europe. Fires can have large consequences for the provisioning of ecosystem services and for human well-being. Therefore, understanding the drivers of fire occurrence and improving the predictive capability of fire occurrence models is of utmost importance. So far, most studies have focused on individual regions with rather low spatial resolution, and have lacked the ability to apply the models in different regions. Here, a species distribution modelling approach (Maxent) was used to model fire occurrence in four regions across the Mediterranean Basin and the Alps using several environmental variables at two spatial resolutions. Additionally, a cross-regional model was developed and spatial transferability tested. Most models showed good performance, with fine resolution models always featuring somewhat higher performance than coarse resolution models. When transferred across regions, the performance of regional models was good only under similar environmental conditions. The cross-regional model showed a higher performance than the regional models in the transfer tests. The results suggest that a cross-regional approach is most robust when aiming to use fire occurrence models at the regional scale but beyond current environmental conditions, for example in scenario analyses of the impacts of climate change. We modelled fire occurrence in four regions across the Alps and the Mediterranean Basin and developed a cross-regional model. We assessed the effect of spatial resolution on model performance and tested the spatial transferability of the models. Results showed that (1) increasing spatial resolution increased model performance and (2) spatial transferability was generally best with the cross-regional model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large mammals play significant roles in shaping the trophic structure of terrestrial ecosystems and affect the form of vegetation growth in many habitats. We studied large mammal community in a Mediterranean habitat mosaic generated by fires originally dominated by pine forests. We conducted camera-trapping surveys in three study sites with different fire histories, and we recorded eight large mammal species including brown bear (Ursus arctos), caracal (Caracal caracal), and wild goat (Capra aegagrus), which are of conservation importance. The mammal community found in the study sites was functionally diverse, including herbivores, omnivores, carnivores, seed dispersers, soil diggers, main preys, and top predators. The site burned 13 years ago had higher species richness than can be expected from a random pattern, but this was not the case in 30- and >40-year-old sites, showing the importance of relatively younger sites for large mammals. Eurasian badger had more probability to have more abundance in places with more open vegetation while wild goat had higher abundance in more dense vegetation. Young individuals of wild goat, brown bear, and wild boar were also detected in the study sites. The results indicate that burned habitats harbor a phylogenetically and functionally diverse large mammal community in landscapes originally dominated by Mediterranean pine forests. Therefore, these forests continue to retain importance for the large mammals after the fire, and burned habitats should be taken into consideration for the conservation and management plans together with mature forests in Mediterranean ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capsule: This study documents evidence of interglacial refugia during the Last Interglacial for birds in the Mediterranean region, and emphasizes the importance of the Last Interglacial on the geographic distribution and genetic structure of Mediterranean species. Aims: We focused on the historical biogeography of the subalpine warbler complex: Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans and Moltoni's Warbler Sylvia subalpina; we tested if this Mediterranean bird complex shared a similar demographic fate as the present-day widespread species in the temperate zones of Europe, through the late Quaternary glacial-interglacial cycles. Methods: An ecological niche model was developed to predict the geographic distribution of the subalpine warblers under the past (the Last Interglacial and the Last Glacial Maximum) and the present bioclimatic conditions. Additionally, Bayesian Skyline Plot analysis was used to assess effective population size changes over the history of the subalpine warbler complex. Results: During the Last Glacial Maximum, the subalpine warblers almost reached their current distribution in the Mediterranean region; yet, unlike the widespread temperate bird species, they survived the Last Interglacial in allopatric refugia in the Mediterranean region. Conclusion: A unique biogeographic pattern was revealed, indicating the importance of the Last Interglacial on current distributional patterns and demographic histories of common bird species in the Mediterranean region. This study suggests that Mediterranean biogeography is far more complex than previously assumed, and so deserves further study and more attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although reforestation is frequently utilized in many Mediterranean Basin countries to restore burned Mediterranean pine woodlands, post-fire recovery of the plant community is often neglected. To compare the post-fire recovery of the plant community following active and indirect post-fire restoration techniques, we studied three post-fire regeneration treatments in a salvagelogged Pinus brutia forest, including two active (plantation and seeding) restoration techniques and one indirect (natural regeneration). An unburned pine stand was also included in the study. We applied the point-intercept method to obtain data on the presence and cover of individual species and functional groups in six replicate one-hectare plots for each treatment. We found no significant differences in plant species richness among post-fire treatments; however, plant community composition and vegetation structure were significantly different between treatments. There was a shift in plant community structure when active restoration techniques were applied, from the woody- and resprouter-dominated plant community of the unburned site to an annual herbaceous- and non-resprouter-dominated one. Our results suggest that active restoration by planting tree saplings in Mediterranean pine forests after a fire may decrease the plant community's resilience and provide empirical evidence that pine plantation treatments change the plant species composition of these forests. These results have important implications for post-fire management of Mediterranean Basin pine forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chaenorhinum gerense is an eastern Mediterranean species with rare distribution and a large variety in plant and seed morphology. In this study, the accuracy of the taxonomic status of this species, which was initially reported by P.H. Davis as C. rubrifolium from south eastern Turkey, is discussed and the typical representatives of C. rubrifolium were collected for the first time for Turkey from Muğla province, southwestern Anatolia. C. gerense is closely related to the C. rubrifolium, from which it differs by having a small and cream corolla with red blotch, capsule as long as or smaller 1/2-calyx teeth and triangular or rectangular blunt crest on seed. Detailed descriptions and identification keys for these two taxa are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The promoting effect of smoke-derived chemicals (e.g. karrikinolide and cyanohydrin) on germination in many plants from Mediterranean-type ecosystems such as South Africa and south-western Australia is well documented. However, very little is known about (1) the relative importance of different compounds and their possible interactive effects, (2) their role in enhancing seedling growth in wild plants, and (3) their effect on the germination of plants in the Mediterranean Basin. To fill these gaps in knowledge, we performed experiments to evaluate the effect of smoke water, karrikinolide, mandelonitrile (a cyanohydrin analogue), potassium nitrate and gibberellic acid on the germination and seedling growth of 37 species from the Mediterranean Basin. The results suggest that germination and/or seedling growth of 21 species are enhanced by at least one of the fire-derived chemicals. There were positive correlations between most of the compounds tested in terms of germination response, but synergetic and inhibitory effects were also detected. Stimulation of germination was most prominent in species with annual life cycles. Fire-derived chemicals were more effective in stimulating root growth than shoot growth. In conclusion, we provide novel evidence that the recruitment of different Mediterranean species may be enhanced by different smoke compounds, and that synergetic and inhibitory effects of chemical compounds are important in the germination ecology of plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Pleistocene glacial periods, the ranges of many temperate species in Europe contracted southwards to refugia near the Mediterranean Basin. This study tested the 'expansion--contraction' model by applying the ecological niche modelling approach to one widespread temperate tree species, pedunculate oak, Quercus robur L., distributed across Europe and Anatolia. We projected the distribution of Q. robur under climatic conditions of the Present, the mid-Holocene [HOL, c. 6000 years before present (YBP)], the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, c. 22 000 YBP) and the Last Interglacial (LIG, c. 130 000 YBP). Quercus robur was at equilibrium with the climate as the model prediction was highly compatible with the its known distribution range under present bioclimatic conditions. The LIG and the HOL predictions gave a much broader distribution range than that during the LGM, suggesting its range contracted towards favourable areas in southern Europe and Anatolia. The results indicate that the glacial refugia hypothesis, based mainly on the 'expansion--contraction' model, applies to Q. robur, although possible extra-Mediterranean refugia in northern, western and southern France are also identified. This study therefore supports claims that European biogeography is significantly more complex than previously thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildland and cropland fires, which differ considerably in fire regime characteristics, have often been evaluated jointly to estimate regional or global fire regimes using satellite-based fire activity data. We hypothesised that excluding cropland fires will change the output of the models regarding the drivers of natural fire activity. We modelled MODIS fire activity data of western and southern Turkey for the years 2000-2015 using binomial generalised linear models in which many climatic, anthropogenic and geographic factors were included as predictor variables. For modelling, we used different datasets created by the exclusion of various cropland and vegetation land cover classes. More fire activity was observed as the number of cropland-dominated cells increased in a dataset. The explained deviance (%) of the binomial GLM differed substantially in the separate datasets for most of the variables. Moreover, excluding croplands gradually from the overall dataset resulted in a substantial decrease in the explained deviance (%) in the models for all variables. The results suggest that cropland fires have a significant effect on the output of fire regime models. Therefore, a clear distinction should be drawn between wildland and cropland fires in such models for a better understanding of natural fire activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Mediterranean fire-prone ecosystems, annual species specific to post-fire habitats should have a soil seed bank and should be able to germinate after a fire. Therefore, various fire-related cues can be expected to stimulate germination in post-fire annuals. Germination patterns of the rare annual Chaenorhinum rubrifolium (Plantaginaceae) were examined in response to mechanical scarification, heat shock, aqueous smoke, nitrogenous compounds, gibberellic acid, karrikinolide (KAR1), and mandelonitrile (a cyanohydrin analogue, MAN) under dark and photoperiod conditions in the laboratory. Combinations of these treatments were also included in the experiment. Strong physiological dormancy in the seeds of C. rubrifolium was partially broken by several fire-related germination cues, including smoke and nitrate, under light conditions. KAR1 and MAN also stimulated germination, and the highest improvement in germination was achieved in the KAR1 treatment in the presence of light. Heat shock + smoke and KAR1 + MAN combinations had positive synergetic and additive effects on germination under light conditions, respectively. The light played a crucial role in the promotion of germination. The results suggest that multiple fire-related cues operate to stimulate germination in C. rubrifolium, an annual species from the Mediterranean Basin. However, the species may have a broader germination niche than a fire-restricted one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this manuscript, the ecological role of wildfire is addressed, and the studies in pyrogeography, a recently emerged science branch, are summarized. Paradigm shifts in our understanding of the role of fire in natural ecosystems are mentioned, and the outcomes of these shifts in forestry applications and in ecological sciences are explained from a historical perspective. It is indicated that pyrogeography has contributed to the recognition of ecological and evolutionary importance of fires, and the reasons and consequences of the spatial distribution patterns of fires on Earth are also discussed on the basis of up-to-date scientific studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite its biological richness, Anatolian steppe ecosystem is currently under threat because of human activity. Anatolian steppe vegetation had been shaped by natural disturbances such as fire and grazing in the past but has been subjected to anthropogenic disturbances such as agriculture and domestic grazing due to increased human activity since a few thousands of years. In this study, it is suggested that the inverse relationship between fire and grazing is also present in Anatolian steppes, and therefore that socio-economic changes occurring in our time will affect disturbance regimes proceeding in this ecosystem in future. For gathering ecological information guided to the conservation of Anatolian steppes, it is needed to perform ecological experiments and to explore disturbance dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We developed the 553-year-long fire history of black pine forests in western Anatolia. • The period of 1853–1934 CE was found as critical fire regime shift period. • A decrease in fire frequency observed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. • Drought and prior wet conditions were main drivers of fires over the past 553 years. In this study, we aimed to use tree-ring based fire reconstruction to understand the spatiotemporal patterns of past fires in different climate types of western Anatolia. We collected fire scarred wood samples from living trees as wedges and remnant woods from ten sites along a transect that represents a continental to Mediterranean climate gradient. We determined fire years and assigned seasonality of fires based on the intraring position of the fire scars. We calculated fire statistics and analysed fire-climate relationships. Breakpoints in our Anatolian regional fire chronology were estimated to determine the regime shifts. A decrease in fire frequency was recorded at most of the sites after the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. We observed two critical fire regime shift periods. The period between 1853 and 1934 is characterized by highly frequent (a total of 82 fires) and simultaneous fires occurring in multiple sites and this period overlapped with the longest and most severe drought period of the past 550 years. The fire frequency decline after 1934 coincided with the period of the first forest protection law in 1937. Dry, as well as prior wet conditions were main drivers of fires in the black pine forests in western Anatolia. We observed a decrease in fire frequency in the late 19th and early 20th centuries due to fire suppression activities. Continued fire suppression activities may cause fuel accumulation and pose a risk for more intense fires and thus a paradox for forests in the future. Based on future climate projections, we will face prolonged fire seasons as a consequence of increasing drought frequency, which may shift the fire regime from surface to crown fires with the accumulation of combustible material in the understory in black pine forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of smoke in fire-stimulated germination in the Mediterranean Basin has often been underestimated. A few records on smoke-enhanced germination are present in Mediterranean Lamiaceae species, but there is still a shortage of information to allow generalizations about this family to be made. To test the hypothesis that smoke enhances germination in Mediterranean Lamiaceae species, we performed a germination experiment, including aqueous smoke treatments in various concentrations (1:1, 1:10 and 1:100) on seven eastern Mediterranean Lamiaceae taxa. Six of the studied taxa (Lavandula stoechas, Origanum onites, Phlomis bourgaei, Stachys cretica ssp. smyrnaea, Satureja thymbra, Teucrium lamiifolium ssp. stachyophyllum) showed significant increments in germination percentage in at least one smoke treatment, as compared to the control. Moreover, L. stoechas, S. thymbra and T. lamiifolium ssp. stachyophyllum displayed faster germination in at least one smoke treatment than in the control. Of the species showing significant increments in germination percentages after aqueous smoke application, at least one single concentration of smoke solution did not stimulate germination, except in L. stoechas and S. thymbra which responded positively to all smoke treatments. Therefore, the concentration of aqueous smoke that improved germination was species-specific. Our results contribute to the current limited knowledge on smoke-enhanced germination in Mediterranean Lamiaceae, and support the idea that smoke is an important germination cue for this family. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The role of smoke as a fire-related germination cue is well known in many parts of the world, including Mediterranean-type ecosystems; however, it has been neglected in the Mediterranean Basin (MB). We studied the germination response of 5 woody species found in the eastern MB (south-western Turkey) to smoke solutions derived from different plant species. Of the 5 species examined, 2 [Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) Spach and Satureja thymbra L.] showed significant increments in germination percentage after smoke treatments compared to the control, while the remaining 3 [Calicotome villosa (Poir.) Link, Cistus salviifolius L., and Lavandula stoechas L.] did not. However, none of the species showed any change in the germination rate. In addition, smoke solutions derived from various plants did not affect the germination response (germination percentage and rate) in all species. The results confirm that the effect of smoke originating from different plant species on germination response is globally similar regardless of the region. Our study helps to fill the gap in the literature on smoke-induced germination in the eastern MB and supports the idea that smoke is important to postfire germination in the MB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The population dynamics of 2 species of Cistus L. (C. salviifolius L. and C. creticus L.) were studied along a post-fire successional gradient in Pinus brutia Ten. forests in Marmaris National Park, Turkey. The population density of Cistus spp. was 16 individual m-2 at the end of the first year after fire and then decreased exponentially (r2 = 0.926, P < 0.001) the second year after fire to later successional stages. Total projected foliage cover of Cistus spp. was 26% by the end of the first year after fire, it increased to approximately 38% during the second year after fire and decreased linearly (r2 = 0.872, P < 0.01) beyond this time. Rates of establishment of Cistus spp. were high in the first year after fire but were low in subsequent years and most of the Cistus plants flowered during the second year after fire. There was a significant positive relationship between the density of new seedlings of Cistus and cover of Pinus brutia trees in the sixth year after fire (r2 = 0.242, P = 0.002). Seed yield of Cistus was reduced due to predation of seed capsules by Bruchid insects. Both species of Cistus were shown to be typical post-fire colonisers in terms of timing of recruitment and post-fire population dynamics. The major factors responsible for the decrease in density of seedlings of C. salviifolius and C. creticus are likely to be the mortality of young seedlings due to summer drought and competition among seedlings and with P. brutia trees. It is suggested here that the species considered have fire-dependent establishment behaviour and an increase in population is restricted to early post-disturbance in P. brutia forests in Turkey, as in other Mediterranean regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Turkey (Türkiye) lies at the nexus of Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and Africa. Turkey’s location, mountains, and its encirclement by three seas have resulted in high terrestrial, fresh water, and marine biodiversity. Most of Turkey’s land area is covered by one of three biodiversity hotspots (Caucasus, Irano-Anatolian, and Mediterranean). Of over 9000 known native vascular plant species, one third are endemic. Turkey faces a significant challenge with regard to biodiversity and associated conservation challenges due to limited research and lack of translation into other languages of existing material. Addressing this gap is increasingly relevant as Turkey’s biodiversity faces severe and growing threats, especially from government and business interests. Turkey ranks 140th out of 163 countries in biodiversity and habitat conservation. Millennia of human activities have dramatically changed the original land and sea ecosystems of Anatolia, one of the earliest loci of human civilization. Nevertheless, the greatest threats to biodiversity have occurred since 1950, particularly in the past decade. Although Turkey’s total forest area increased by 5.9% since 1973, endemic-rich Mediterranean maquis, grasslands, coastal areas, wetlands, and rivers are disappearing, while overgrazing and rampant erosion degrade steppes and rangelands. The current “developmentalist obsession”, particularly regarding water use, threatens to eliminate much of what remains, while forcing large-scale migration from rural areas to the cities. According to current plans, Turkey’s rivers and streams will be dammed with almost 4000 dams, diversions, and hydroelectric power plants for power, irrigation, and drinking water by 2023. Unchecked urbanization, dam construction, draining of wetlands, poaching, and excessive irrigation are the most widespread threats to biodiversity. This paper aims to survey what is known about Turkey’s biodiversity, to identify the areas where research is needed, and to identify and address the conservation challenges that Turkey faces today. Preserving Turkey’s remaining biodiversity will necessitate immediate action, international attention, greater support for Turkey’s developing conservation capacity, and the expansion of a nascent Turkish conservation ethic. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]