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Soil-vegetation-atmosphere interaction has long been known to induce significant pore pressure variations at shallow depths and associated superficial slope movements. Recent findings suggest that the effect of this interaction may also extend to large depths in natural clay slopes. Multiple examples of weather-induced deep landslide mechanisms can be found in the Southern Apennines (Italy), where slopes are often formed of fissured clays. The relationship between the activity of these landslides and the hydro-mechanical processes due to soil-vegetation- atmosphere interaction was investigated herein by means of a two-dimensional coupled hydro-mechanical finite element analysis. A constitutive model capable of simulating the behaviour of highly overconsolidated clays, in both saturated and unsaturated states, was adopted in the analysis, in conjunction with a boundary condition capable of reproducing the combined effects of rainfall infiltration, evapo-transpiration, and run-off. The results of the analysis corroborate the connection between weather conditions, pore pressure variations, and slope movements in natural clay slopes. The importance of adequately reproducing the geological history of a natural slope to define its current state is also demonstrated. Key words: numerical modelling, finite element analysis, soil-vegetation- atmosphere interaction, natural slopes, landslides, fissured clays. L'interaction sol-vegetation-atmosphere est connue depuis longtemps pour induire d'importantes variations de pression interstitielle a faible profondeur et des mouvements de pente superficiels associes. Des resultats recents suggerent que l'effet de cette interaction peut egalement s'etendre a de grandes profondeurs dans les pentes argileuses naturelles. De multiples exemples de mecanismes de glissement de terrain profond induits par les conditions meteorologiques peuvent etre trouves dans les Apennins meridionaux (Italie), ou les pentes sont souvent formees d'argiles fissurees. La relation entre l'activite de ces glissements de terrain et les processus hydromecaniques dus a l'interaction sol-vegetation-atmosphere a ete etudiee ici au moyen d'une analyse bidimensionnelle couplee hydro-mecanique par elements finis. Un modele constitutif capable de simuler le comportement des argiles fortement surconsolidees, a la fois dans les etats satures et non satures, a ete adopte dans l'analyse, en conjonction avec une condition limite capable de reproduire les effets combines de l'infiltration des pluies, de l'evapotranspiration et du ruissellement. Les resultats de l'analyse corroborent le lien entre les conditions meteorologiques, les variations de pression interstitielle et les mouvements de pente dans les pentes argileuses naturelles. L'importance de reproduire adequatement l'histoire geologique d'un versant naturel afin de definir son etat actuel est egalement demontree. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles : modelisation numerique, analyse par elements finis, interaction sol- vegetation-atmosphere, pentes naturelles, glissements de terrain, argiles fissurees., Introduction Soil-atmosphere interaction has been extensively investigated in the laboratory and in the field (e.g., Blight 1997; Toll et al. 2011; Smethurst et al. 2012; Pirone et al. 2015; Askarinejad [...]

Seawalls are constructed by covering and protecting the sloping seashore ground with concrete plates or blocks. Their purpose is to sustain high waves induced by strong winds and prevent ground erosion, but they often collapse, mobilising different modes of failure, including that of the ground. Nevertheless, limited research has been conducted on ground failure caused by high waves. In this study, a series of novel centrifuge model tests was first conducted to investigate the failure mechanisms of seawalls due to wave propagation, focusing on the failure of the ground. Finite-element analyses were subsequently conducted to explore the failures observed in the model tests and to provide further insight as to the state of the ground leading to failure. Two failure modes were demonstrated to prevail: floating of the covering panel and sliding failure of the ground. In addition, of the possible causes of failure, the following three were identified in the current study: increased unit weight and reduced suction from wetting; enhanced seepage force under the panel and around the toe block during backwash; water pressure on the back of the panel and the landward side of the toe block during backwash. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil-atmosphere interaction has been attracting increasing interest as the seasonal variation of pore water pressures (pwp) has been linked to a variety of geotechnical problems (e.g. slope stability and serviceability, foundation subsidence or swelling, desiccation cracking etc.) or has been identified as part of the solution of geotechnical problems (e.g. in sustainable urban drainage systems). Prediction of how the pwp will change within soils of low permeability under the combined effect of evapotranspiration and precipitation requires adequate knowledge of the soil permeability and how it varies spatially (e.g with depth) and temporally (e.g. with suction or degree of saturation, void ratio or due to the opening and closing of desiccation cracks). Nonetheless, in-situ measurements of permeability that satisfy both the spatial and temporal variation are difficult. In order to clarify the importance of variable permeability in predicting pwp variations under atmospheric loads, a series of one- and two-dimensional finite element analyses was performed, where the permeability model and the variation of permeability were parametrically studied. The results demonstrated that the variation of permeability, as well as the model employed in the analysis, e.g. allowing or not for desiccation cracking, influenced the values of suction calculated as well as the pwp profile with depth, highlighting the importance of estimating the spatial and temporal variation of permeability with some level of confidence.

MX-80 bentonite has been considered as a suitable material for the construction of engineered barriers employed in deep geological radioactive waste repositories. These barriers are generally formed of compacted unsaturated bentonite, the latter experiencing a slow saturation due to its low permeability whileinteracting with the surrounding groundwater. In order to verify the long-term safety requirements of engineered barriers, their response to hydration has to be carefully assessed. As part of the recent European project BEACON (Bentonite Mechanical Evolution), the behaviour of MX-80 bentonite subjected to different hydration paths was investigated in a number of laboratory and field experiments and numerical studies. This paper is concerned with numerical simulations of two laboratory experiments performed during the project, with the objective of examining the predictive capabilities of the proposed numerical modelling approach. The experiments were selected due to the granular state of bentonite at its placement in the testingapparatus, which differed from the large number of previous experiments conducted on specimens of compacted bentonite blocks. The paper provides a brief introduction to the adopted modelling framework, a summary of calibrated parameters for the hydro-mechanical constitutive modelling and the results of numerical simulations, concluding that a satisfactory numerical simulation of the experiments was achieved.

It has long been established that pore water pressure (pwp) variations affect the stability and serviceability of slopes. Pwp variations may be due to consolidation/swelling processes within soils of low permeability or may be due to seasonal evapotranspiration and precipitation processes. The simultaneous study of such phenomena and of hydro-mechanical coupling in sloping ground requires use of advancednumerical methods. Often, infrastructure slopes are considered in plane strain (two-dimensional) conditions for simplicity and to date this is the case for most numerical analyses considering soil-atmosphere interaction. However, this approach makes it impossible to study the longitudinal extent of a possible slip surface forming following vegetation removal. Three-dimensional, fully-coupled numerical analyses of acut slope were performed herein to study the effect of vegetation clearance on stability and explore numerically ways of implementing effective vegetation management.

In this paper, 2-dimensional, hydro-mechanically coupled finite element analyses are performed to assess the performance of an engineered barrier aimed at reducing flood risk in urban environments. The barrier consists of an unsaturated compacted soil layer and a drainage layer of a coarse granular material, constructed on top of the natural soil, in this case London clay. The barrier is vegetated so that its water storage capacity is renewed after each rainfall event. Sophisticated boundary conditions are used to simulate the effect of precipitation and evapotranspiration. The rainfall water infiltration and the initiation of water run-off during intense precipitation events are simulated. The effect of the hydraulic properties of the unsaturated soil layer on the performance of the system is investigated by means of parametric analyses. The effect of precipitation rate and geometry of the barrier is also discussed. Design recommendations for the properties of the compacted layer and the dimensions of the system are given at the end of the paper.

Atmospheric phenomena such as rainfall and evapotranspiration contribute to slope movements in unsaturated soils, the study of which requires fully coupled numerical methods, combined with realistic boundary conditions and appropriate mechanical and hydraulic soil properties. This paper focuses on the effect of the hydraulic behaviour, and in particular of the modelling of the soil-water retention curve and the permeability on slope movements, with the aim of identifying which model parameters are critical and, therefore, require careful experimental identification.

Buffer materials for nuclear waste disposal applications generally consist of blocks made of highly expansive compacted clay. However, high-density pellets of bentonite are being evaluated as an alternative buffer material for waste isolation. The material response of pellet-based buffers may be quite different from that of compacted buffers, because of the peculiar discontinuous porosity presented. An overview of the literature available on pellet-based buffers is presented and, in particular, two main topics are discussed: firstly, the characteristics of the fabric of the pellets that can be observed through techniques of micro-structural investigation, secondly, the most important behavioural features that can be seen during material testing. Additionally, the constitutive frameworks that have already been developed specifically for pellets are also reviewed. The overall objective of the paper is to highlight the differences between compacted and pellet-based bentonite buffers, in order to propose suitable assumptions to start developing a constitutive model for the latter.

A new temperature-controlled oedometer has been designed at Imperial College London and commissioned to investigate the thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of soils. Under oedometric conditions, temperature can be varied between 5°C and 70°C, by submerging the specimen in a temperature-controlled water bath. This temperature range is appropriate for the proposed applications of the research: design of ground-source heating/cooling systems, and design of geological disposal facilities for nuclear waste. In this paper, an overview of the new equipment is given: its design, development, and calibration. First, the literature on temperature-controlled oedometer schemes is reviewed. A description of the equipment follows, with further details on the innovations and limitations of this design. As the equipment has been modified and improved over the course of the research, so too has the calibration procedure. These developments are discussed, again with the focus on innovations and limitations. Finally, a test programme and preliminary results are presented, for saturated KSS, an artificial mixture of kaolin clay, silt, and sand. These include isobaric (constant-pressure) heating tests, for a variety of loading histories. Over-consolidation ratio is found to affect the thermally-induced volume change.

This paper describes a calibration procedure for the double structure constitutive model ICDSM (Imperial College Double Structure Model), developed for highly expansive clays, when the model is applied to MX-80 bentonite. Firstly, the model calibration process is discussed and organised in a number of hierarchical steps. These steps involve the estimation of the macrostructural parameters that can be derived from oedometer, isotropic and triaxial laboratory data. Estimation of the microstructural parameters is more challenging due to the limited knowledge of an expansive clay’s fabric and of the physico-chemical phenomena that control its evolution upon wetting. Nevertheless, this paper discusses the available sources of data and identifies the appropriate information that is needed to characterise the micro-structural behaviour of the bentonite. Finally, through the simulation of a swelling pressure test on a bentonite plug, the hydration of the material is studied as a hydro-mechanical coupled process. Particular attention is devoted to the evolution of the stress state of the sample, which is compared to the experimental measurements in order to demonstrate that the constitutive model accurately reproduces the expansive behaviour of MX-80 bentonite.

A technique for controlling relative humidity (RH) is presented, which involves supplying a sealed chamber with a continuous flow of air at a computer-regulated RH. The desired value of RH is achieved by mixing dry and wet air at appropriate volumes and is measured for servo-control at three locations in the chamber with capacitive RH sensors and checked with a sensitive VAISALA sensor. The setup is capable of controlling RH steadily and continuously with a deviation of less than 0.2% RH. The technique was adopted to determine wetting soil-water retention curves (SWRC) of statically compacted London Clay, under both free-swelling and constant volume conditions. The RH within the chamber was increased in a step-wise fashion, with each step maintained until vapour equilibrium between the chamber atmosphere and the soil samples was established. Independent filter paper measurements further validate the method, while the obtained retention curves complement those available in the literature for lower ranges of suction.

Deep and slow landslide processes are frequently observed in clay slopes located along the Southern Apennines (Italy). A case study representative of these processes, named Pisciolo case study, is discussed in the paper. The geo-hydro-mechanical characteristics of the materials involved in the instability phenomena are initially discussed. Pluviometric, piezometric, inclinometric and GPS monitoring data are subsequently presented, suggesting that rainfall infiltration constitutes the main factor inducing slope movements. The connection between formation of landslide bodies and slope-atmosphere interaction has been demonstrated through a hydro-mechanical finite element analysis, whose results are finally reported in the work. This analysis has been conducted employing a constitutive model that is capable of simulating both saturated and unsaturated soil behaviour, as well as a boundary condition able to simulate the effects of the soil-vegetation-atmosphere interaction.

Interaction between atmosphere and soil has only recently attracted significant interest. Soil-atmosphere interaction takes place under dynamic climatic conditions, which vary throughout the year and are expected to suffer considerable alterations due to climate change. However, Geotechnical Analysis has traditionally been limited to simplistic approaches, where winter and summer pore water pressure profiles are prescribed. Geotechnical Structures, such as cut slopes, are known to be prone to large irreversible displacements under the combined effect of water uptake by a complex vegetation root system and precipitation. If such processes take place in an unsaturated material the complexity of the problem renders the use of numerical analysis essential. In this paper soil-atmosphere interaction in cut slopes is studied using advanced, fully coupled partially saturated finite element analyses. The effect of rainfall and evapotranspiration is modelled through sophisticated boundary conditions, applying actual meteorological data on a monthly basis. Stages of low and high water demand vegetation are considered for a period of several years, before simulating the effect of vegetation removal. The analysis results are presented with regard to the serviceability and stability of the cut slope.