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Objective: To provide a broad overview of the current state of research regarding the effects of 7 commonly used motor learning strategies to improve functional tasks within older neurologic and geriatric populations. Data Sources: PubMed, CINAHL, and Embase were searched. Study Selection: A systematic mapping review of randomized controlled trials was conducted regarding the effectiveness of 7 motor learning strategies—errorless learning, analogy learning, observational learning, trial-and-error learning, dual-task learning, discovery learning, and movement imagery—within the geriatric and neurologic population. Data Extraction: Two thousand and ninety-nine articles were identified. After screening, 87 articles were included for further analysis. Two reviewers extracted descriptive data regarding the population, type of motor learning strategy/intervention, frequency and total duration intervention, task trained, movement performance measures, assessment time points, and between-group effects of the included studies. The risk of bias 2 tool was used to assess bias; additionally, papers underwent screening for sample size justification. Data Synthesis: Identified articles regarding the effects of the targeted motor learning strategies started around the year 2000 and mainly emerged in 2010. Eight populations were included, for example, Parkinson's and stroke. Included studies were not equally balanced: analogy learning (n=2), errorless learning and trial-and-error learning (n=5), mental practice (n=19), observational learning (n=11), discovery learning (n=0), and dual-tasking (n=50). Overall studies showed a moderate-to-high risk of bias. Four studies were deemed sufficiently reliable to interpret effects. Positive trends regarding the effects were observed for dual-tasking, observational learning, and movement imagery. Conclusions: Findings show a skewed distribution of studies across motor learning interventions, especially toward dual-tasking. Methodological shortcomings make it difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding the effectiveness of motor learning strategies to improve functional studies. Future researchers are strongly advised to follow guidelines that aid in maintaining methodological quality. Moreover, alternative designs fitting the complex practice situation should be considered.

Motor dysfunction is increasingly being viewed as a core characteristic of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children. In particular, children with ASD have difficulty in learning new motor skills and there is a need to develop effective methods to improve this. Previous research has found that children with ASD may retain the ability to implicitly learn motor skills in comparison to their explicit learning of motor skills, which is typically impaired. This literature mini review focuses on summarizing the study of implicit learning in the acquisition of motor skills in children with ASD. First, we briefly introduce several common implicit learning methods in children's motor skill learning. Second, we focus on the role of two important implicit learning approaches in motor skill learning, namely, an external focus of attention and analogy learning. Finally, based on our review of the existing studies, we present an outlook for future research and the areas that need to be improved in the practical teaching of implicit learning in the acquisition of motor skills in children with ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Teaching motor skills to novices has been the main task of physical educators, and studies in motor learning have always sought to discover better ways to optimize the skill acquisition process. Movement information is presented transparently through the performer's demonstration, illustration, feedback, and verbal guidance in motor skills instructing. This study seeks to determine the type of learning, i.e., analogy learning or explicit learning, suitable for promoting the children's acquisition of skills that are biomechanically and kinematically different from the same skill learned by explicit instructions, and to determine how the physical form of the skill evolves over practice. Material and Methods: Forty-five right-handed healthy beginner male students (mean age 9.93 ±0.55 years; height 1.39 ±4.16 m; body mass 31.65±3.23 kg; novice in basketball) participated in the study. Subjects were randomly allocated to an explicit learning condition (n = 15), an analogy learning condition (n = 15), or an uninstructed control condition (n = 15). Ten free throws (FT) in the standing position were performed with the right hand by each student using modified equipment i.e., a small ball, customized rim with 45-cm circumference and adapted net height of 2 m. Attempts were recorded from 3 m away in a biomechanical laboratory with two-dimensional (2D) video data collection (i.e., using 240 Hz camera resolution). Results: The independent ANOVA yielded a statistically significant effect across the three groups in post-tests: F (8,16) = 283.233, P = 0.001, χ2 = 0.793. A statistically significant difference was observed across the three groups: F (8, 16) = 332.057, P = 0.001, χ2 = 0.818. Discussion: The analogy group's performance was significantly better in the skill taught. The explicit learners achieved lower scores compared to the analogy learners. Conclusions: The analogy learning training method is recommended for children aged 10-12 willing to learn FT in basketball. The conclusions may be important for coaches concerning the use of different training methods in skill learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Teaching motor skills to novices has been the main task of physical educators, and studies in motor learning have always sought to discover better ways to optimize the skill acquisition process. Movement information is presented transparently through the performer’s demonstration, illustration, feedback, and verbal guidance in motor skills instructing. This study seeks to determine the type of learning, i.e., analogy learning or explicit learning, suitable for promoting the children’s acquisition of skills that are biomechanically and kinematically different from the same skill learned by explicit instructions, and to determine how the physical form of the skill evolves over practice. Material and Methods: Forty-five right-handed healthy beginner male students (mean age 9.93 ±0.55 years; height 1.39 ±4.16 m; body mass 31.65±3.23 kg; novice in basketball) participated in the study. Subjects were randomly allocated to an explicit learning condition (n = 15), an analogy learning condition (n = 15), or an uninstructed control condition (n = 15). Ten free throws (FT) in the standing position were performed with the right hand by each student using modified equipment i.e., a small ball, customized rim with 45-cm circumference and adapted net height of 2 m. Attempts were recorded from 3 m away in a biomechanical laboratory with two-dimensional (2D) video data collection (i.e., using 240 Hz camera resolution). Results: The independent ANOVA yielded a statistically significant effect across the three groups in post-tests: F (8,16) = 283.233, P = 0.001, η2 = 0.793. A statistically significant difference was observed across the three groups: F (8, 16) = 332.057, P = 0.001, η2 = 0.818. Discussion: The analogy group's performance was significantly better in the skill taught. The explicit learners achieved lower scores compared to the analogy learners. Conclusions: The analogy learning training method is recommended for children aged 10–12 willing to learn FT in basketball. The conclusions may be important for coaches concerning the use of different training methods in skill learning.

Introduction: Achieving a high level of motor learning requires finding an optimal combination of variables and methods. This research aimed to investigate the interactive effect of the focus of attention (internal and external) and learning approach (explicit and implicit) on the retention and transfer of basketball free throw skills.Methods: Forty-eight volunteer male students were randomly assigned to four Explicit Learning - Internal Attention, Explicit Learning - External Attention, Implicit Learning - Internal Attention, and Implicit Learning - External Attention groups. In the acquisition phase, the groups practiced basketball free throws in 6 blocks of 10 trials. 24 hours after the end of the acquisition phase, a retention test and two transfer tests were performed in a block of 10 trials for each test. The first transfer test was performed 10 minutes after the retention test under pressure conditions, and the second transfer test was performed ten minutes after the first transfer test from a 4-meter distance and a 45-degree angle.Results: The results showed that in explicit learning conditions, the external focus of attention and in implicit learning conditions, the internal focus of attention led to better learning in basketball free throw.Conclusion: According to the findings of the present study, the cognitive overload of the explicit learning approach was moderated by providing the external focus of attention instructions. However, in the implicit learning approach, due to the use of analogy learning, little cognitive load is exerted on the learners’ working memory and it is possible to direct their attention to the skill itself or parts of the body that are involved in the execution of skill to achieve the benefits of the internal focus of attention.

Analogy learning is a method of learning which encourages students to abstract new information and match it to already acquired knowledge (Richland & Simms, 2015). This study focuses on the topic of analogy learning and its effectiveness in primary Physical Education (PE) lessons. It aims to explore the perceptions of students and teachers towards the use of analogy learning in PE, as well as the benefits and limitations of this approach. The aims of the study align with the research questions which are the principal impetus for this study. The paper presents the results of a research study that was held in a girls' primary church school in Malta, with students from Grades 1, 3 and 6 participating in either an analogy group (treatment group) or a non-analogy group (control group) during PE lessons. Data was collected through close-ended questionnaires and semistructured interviews with students and PE stakeholders. The results showed that analogy learning can be beneficial in PE lessons, but it also has limitations. The study also highlighted the need for greater awareness about the use of analogy learning in primary PE lessons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Achieving a high level of motor learning requires finding an optimal combination of variables and methods. This research aimed to investigate the interactive effect of the focus of attention (internal and external) and learning approach (explicit and implicit) on the retention and transfer of basketball free throw skills. Methods: Forty-eight volunteer male students were randomly assigned to four Explicit Learning - Internal Attention, Explicit Learning - External Attention, Implicit Learning - Internal Attention, and Implicit Learning - External Attention groups. In the acquisition phase, the groups practiced basketball free throws in 6 blocks of 10 trials. 24 hours after the end of the acquisition phase, a retention test and two transfer tests were performed in a block of 10 trials for each test. The first transfer test was performed 10 minutes after the retention test under pressure conditions, and the second transfer test was performed ten minutes after the first transfer test from a 4-meter distance and a 45-degree angle. Results: The results showed that in explicit learning conditions, the external focus of attention and in implicit learning conditions, the internal focus of attention led to better learning in basketball free throw. Conclusion: According to the findings of the present study, the cognitive overload of the explicit learning approach was moderated by providing the external focus of attention instructions. However, in the implicit learning approach, due to the use of analogy learning, little cognitive load is exerted on the learners’ working memory and it is possible to direct their attention to the skill itself or parts of the body that are involved in the execution of skill to achieve the benefits of the internal focus of attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate the effect of applying analogy instruction for older adults in learning the badminton high serve. It was hypothesized that acquiring this motor skill by analogy instruction would bring the benefits of more robust and durable motor performance under stress and over time. A group of older adults learned badminton high serves by either a set of explicit instructions or an analogy instruction that represented the biomechanical metaphor of the badminton high serve. They were then invited to perform the motor task in two testing conditions: a stress transfer test and a retention test. It was found that the analogy instruction group improved the motor performance in badminton high serves during the learning blocks and maintained high levels of performance in the stress transfer test and retention test, whereas the explicit instruction group did not show any improvement. The analogy instruction group had better motor performance than the explicit instruction group during the stress transfer test. The results showed that analogy instruction facilitated the acquisition of new motor skills in older adults, and the benefit of stress resistance was also evidenced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of explicit, implicit, and analogy learning methods on developing selective attention skills in young novice participants was examined under normal and stressful conditions. The 60 novice participants, aged 11-12 years old, followed a video simulation intervention program of 12 sessions (3 times * 4 weeks). They were tested four times (pre-test, post-test, retention, and stress test) to evaluate their reaction time and accuracy in selective attention skills. The differences among the groups and the measurements were analysed using a two-way mixed factorial ANOVA (4 groups * 4 measurements), and post-hoc Bonferroni evaluated significant differences among the groups. The results showed that all three experimental groups improved their performance in response reaction time and accuracy from the pre-test to the post-test and maintained their scores on the retention test. However, the analogy group had the best scores, followed by the implicit group, and they were both better than the explicit group. According to the stress test, the analogy and the implicit group remained unaffected while the explicit group showed a decrease in both reaction time and accuracy. Training by analogy was more effective in improving selective attention in novices in both normal and stressful conditions. Analogy learners probably developed an advanced mechanism that allowed them to quickly and accurately select the most useful information from the sport setting even in stressful conditions. This research highlights the advantages of simulation techniques; future research may assess selective attention in real conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. Physical education teachers and coaches often face the problem of how to convey information to novice learners, particularly to children. The present study aims to examine how visual and verbal analogy learning affects basketball free-throw learning as well as working memory in 9- to 12-year-old children. Material and Methods. Forty-eight children (24 males, mean age: 10.5 ± 1.8 years) were selected through convenience sampling and randomly assigned to four groups, namely visual analogy, verbal analogy, explicit, and control groups. The task involved throwing a basketball from a distance of 3.05 meters. The participants completed 15 trials in the pretest, posttest, and retention phases and 720 trials in the acquisition phase. Results. The result of the paired sample t-test indicated that the visual analogy, verbal analogy, and explicit learning groups experienced a significant improvement in their performance through the skill acquisition phase as well as an improvement in their working memories (p ≤ 0.05), while the control group did not exhibit such improvements (p = 0.91). In addition, one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that the analogy learning group outperformed other groups in both post-test and retention tests as well as in terms of motor learning and working memory (p ≤ 0.05). Conclusions. The verbal analogy and the explicit learning groups were equally better than the control group. The findings of this study suggest that coaches in instructional environments should make further use of the advantages of visual analogy learning for children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of explicit and analogy learning on preschool children's running, long jump, gallop and balance. The participants were 43 preschool children randomly assigned to the analogy learning group (22 children) or the explicit (21 children). In the explicit learning group explicit instructions were given about body and limb movements of the to-be-learned skill, whereas in the analogy group instructions were given in the form of analogies (i.e. using metaphors). The duration of the intervention was four lessons. Prior to and after the intervention, children were assessed for running, long jump, gallop, and balancing on one foot. The results showed that both groups improved significantly regarding locomotor skills, whereas only the analogy group improved in the balance task. The findings support the use of analogy learning as an alternative to explicit in acquiring locomotor skills and improving balance in preschool children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different motor learning methods (explicit or analogy learning) show different effects on motor performance stability, and reinvestment propensity plays an important role in motor performance stability. This study aimed to explore whether reinvestment propensity, that is, movement self-consciousness (MS-C) and conscious motor processing (CMP) as two dimensions, played a moderating role in the relationship between motor learning methods and motor performance stability. A total of 78 participants were randomly assigned to either the explicit or analogy learning group and their reinvestment propensity was measured. We recorded the number of golf putt goals in both the practice phase and the test phases (including a retention test and a stress test). In the moderating analysis, participants' reinvestment propensity was the moderating variable, and the dependent variable was motor performance stability (i.e., the difference between the two test phases). Results showed that motor performance was significantly different between practicing blocks, which indicated that the motor performance of learners was gradually increasing. The significant interaction between learning methods and the test phase on motor performance was detected, suggesting under stress, analogy learning was more likely to maintain the stability of motor performance, while explicit learning impaired the stability of motor performance. The CMP played a significant moderating role in the relationship between motor learning methods and motor performance stability. The result indicated that for learners with low CMP, the motor performance stability of analogy learning was better than explicit learning, while there was no significant difference in the stability of motor performance between the two learning methods for learners with high reinvestment propensity. No significant evidence was found that MS-C played a moderating role in the relationship between motor learning methods and motor performance stability. These findings expand the theoretical framework of motor skill learning and provide theoretical support for motor performance stability. • Analogy learning is more likely to maintain the stability of motor performance under stress. • CMP plays a significant moderating role in the relationship between motor learning methods and motor performance stability. • For people with low CMP, analogy learning is better than explicit learning in maintaining motor performance stability. • For people with high CMP, there is no significant difference in motor performance stability between the two learning methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Clinicians may use implicit or explicit motor learning approaches to facilitate motor learning of patients with stroke. Implicit motor learning approaches have shown promising results in healthy populations. The purpose of this study was to assess whether an implicit motor learning walking intervention is more effective compared with an explicit motor learning walking intervention delivered at home regarding walking speed in people after stroke in the chronic phase of recovery. Methods This randomized, controlled, single-blind trial was conducted in the home environment. The 79 participants, who were in the chronic phase after stroke (age = 66.4 [SD = 11.0] years; time poststroke = 70.1 [SD = 64.3] months; walking speed = 0.7 [SD = 0.3] m/s; Berg Balance Scale score = 44.5 [SD = 9.5]), were randomly assigned to an implicit (n = 38) or explicit (n = 41) group. Analogy learning was used as the implicit motor learning walking intervention, whereas the explicit motor learning walking intervention consisted of detailed verbal instructions. Both groups received 9 training sessions (30 minutes each), for a period of 3 weeks, targeted at improving quality of walking. The primary outcome was walking speed measured by the 10-Meter Walk Test at a comfortable walking pace. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, immediately after intervention, and 1 month postintervention. Results No statistically or clinically relevant differences between groups were obtained postintervention (between-group difference was estimated at 0.02 m/s [95% CI = −0.04 to 0.08] and at follow-up (between-group difference estimated at −0.02 m/s [95% CI = −0.09 to 0.05]). Conclusion Implicit motor learning was not superior to explicit motor learning to improve walking speed in people after stroke in the chronic phase of recovery. Impact To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the effects of implicit compared with explicit motor learning on a functional task in people after stroke. Results indicate that physical therapists can use (tailored) implicit and explicit motor learning strategies to improve walking speed in people after stroke who are in the chronic phase of recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starting with the differences between forecasting and prediction and going deeper into prediction, a knowledge-based model is presented. The evolution of the stocks markets are analyzed, as well as how the epidemics and pandemics prior to the stock markets have affected them and how it is currently being affected by covid-19. The defined model is applied to a use case using Case-Based Reasoning (CBR): it makes an analogy between the 2008 crisis with the covid-19 crisis in 2020 to predict whether the stock markets will take more or less time to recover.

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Introduction: The constraints-led approach (CLA) and more generally a complex systems perspective on motor learning emphasizes the role of perceptual-motor exploration during learning in order to ensure the acquisition of a highly individualized, adapted and adaptable movement pattern. Recent studies have shown that human beings have a strong tendency to exploit already stable patterns rather than looking for new potentially more efficient patterns. In order to shape the amount of exploration, we implemented two learning designs based on a CLA where constraints were used to limit the boundaries of the perceptual-motor workspace of the learners. We sought to highlight how practitioners can play with the perceptual motor workspace boundaries in order to (i) promote the use of exploratory behaviours and (ii) guide the learner towards task-relevant functional areas. Method: For the experiment, twenty-four beginners in breaststroke swimming were allocated to three groups of learning: a control group receiving only the goal of the learning, an analogy group receiving the goal of learning accompanied by an analogy about 'how to perform', a pacer group receiving information on the goal of learning and the use of a metronome to continuously push them to 'perform better'. Based on their assigned group, each learner then followed a learning protocol of 16 sessions with a 10*25 m swimming distance per session with the goal of increasing the stroke length for a fixed swimming speed. Both performance (i.e. stroke length) and motor behaviour (i.e. arm-leg coordination) were collected for each session. The arm-leg coordination patterns were computed by the continuous relative phase between knee and elbow angles. Thereafter, a cluster analysis was performed on the coordination in order to get a qualitative label for every cycle performed during the entire process of learning. Based on the use of cluster analysis, an exploration/exploitation ratio was calculated and the increase in performance was determined based on the increase in stroke length. Results and Discussion: With reference to the exploration/exploitation ratio, our results showed that additional temporary constraints-led learners to increase both the nature of their exploration and also the quantity of their exploration. In the meantime, the three groups showed an equivalent final performance enhancement. The aim of manipulating the constraints was not only to push the learner out of his comfort zone, but also to provide relevant information about 'where' to explore during learning. For this purpose, the use of analogy appeared as the most relevant constraint to encourage the emergence of efficient behaviour. Interestingly the impact of the analogy was modified by adding the metronome, showing an interaction effect of both constraints. The group using the metronome exhibited different behaviours as compared to the analogy group and showed an increase in exploration during learning compared to the control group. However, although the metronome constantly pushed the learner to improve performance, it did not actually lead to a better improvement of performance when compared to the analogy group. The simple assumption that the constraints forced the learner to explore therefore does not seem a mandatory condition to promote an exploratory learning. Rather, the qualitative nature of the constraint seems the most relevant characteristic that can be manipulated to promote an exploratory learning by guiding the learner within the perceptual motor workspace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to compare the performance of analogy (implicit),explicit and discovery learning in the retention and transfer of a topspin shot underpsychological pressure. For this purpose, 36 volunteer high school students wererandomly allocated to three treatment conditions: explicit, analogy, and discoverylearning. After performing 300 trials in the acquisition phase, an immediateretention and transfer test under psychological pressure was performed. Before theacquisition phase, the MSRSQ, after the test, a procedural protocol and CSAI-2Qin two phases were completed by the participants. Results showed no significantdifference among the groups in the immediate retention test. In the transfer test,analogy learning group outperformed the two other groups. In addition, contraryto the analogy group, the two other groups experienced a performance breakdownin the transfer test when compared with the immediate retention test. There was asignificant correlation (positive and negative respectively) between their MSRSQscore and number of verbal rules and their performance under pressure. It appearsthat the dominant process in discovery learning is explicit process. In addition,learning under explicit and implicit conditions for an extended period of timeappears to be quantitatively similar but qualitatively dissimilar; therefore, usinganalogy learning, performers benefit from advantages of resistance againstperformance breakdown under psychological pressure.

The present study investigated the differential effects of analogy and explicit instructions on early stage motor learning and movement in a modified high jump task. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: analogy, explicit light (reduced informational load), or traditional explicit (large informational load). During the two-day learning phase, participants learned a novel high jump technique based on the 'scissors' style using the instructions for their respective conditions. For the single-day testing phase, participants completed both a retention test and task-relevant pressure test, the latter of which featured a rising high-jump-bar pressure manipulation. Although analogy learners demonstrated slightly more efficient technique and reported fewer technical rules on average, the differences between the conditions were not statistically significant. There were, however, significant differences in joint variability with respect to instructional type, as variability was lowest for the analogy condition during both the learning and testing phases, and as a function of block, as joint variability decreased for all conditions during the learning phase. Findings suggest that reducing the informational volume of explicit instructions may mitigate the deleterious effects on performance previously associated with explicit learning in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using several quasi-experimental designs with 280 participants from Taiwan, this study explores how and when original movies can dominate sequels, based on analogy learning theory. When a consumer's purchase decision reflects greater product knowledge, the preference for original movies dominates the preference for sequels such that other original movies are preferred over the sequel to a known original film. Extending the research to different types of sequels, this study reveals that numbered sequels achieve greater familiarity effects than name-based sequels on judgment and a sense of connection, but not preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Analogy is the similarity of different concepts on which a comparison can be based. Recently, an analogy of ‘‘waves at sea’’ was shown to be effective in modulating fundamental frequency (F0) variation. Perceptions of intonation were not examined, as the primary aim of the work was to determine whether analogy instruction had a negative impact on other parameters of the speech signal compared with explicit instruction. The purpose of this study was (a) to determine whether changes in the standard deviation of F0, acoustically, resulted in similar changes in the perception of pitch variability and (b) to determine the perceptual influence of analogy vs. explicit instructions on speech naturalness, loudness, and rate. Method: Ten speech-language pathologists were asked to listen to and rate pitch variation, speech naturalness, loudness, and rate for 74 Cantonese speech samples using a visual analogue scale, which allowed raters to indicate their subjective perceptions of each parameter. Results: It is revealed that listeners perceived pitch variation to be greater and speech to be more natural in analogy instructed, rather than explicitly instructed, speech. No differences were perceived for ratings of speech loudness or speech rate. Conclusion: It is concluded that analogy instruction has a less negative impact on the naturalness of speech than explicit instruction and may provide a better method by which to manipulate desired pitch variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cost-effectiveness of the implicit (procedural) knowledge that supports motor expertise enables surprisingly efficient performance when a decision and an action must occur in close temporal proximity. The authors argue that if novices learn the motor component of performance implicitly rather than explicitly, then they will also be efficient when they make a decision and execute an action in close temporal proximity. Participants (N = 35) learned a table tennis shot implicitly or explicitly. The authors assessed participants' motor performance and movement kinematics under conditions that required a concurrent low-complexity decision or a concurrent high-complexity decision about where to direct each shot. Performance was disrupted only for participants who learned explicitly when they made high-complexity decisions but not when they made low-complexity decisions. The authors conclude that implicit motor learning encourages cognitively efficient motor control more than does explicit motor learning, which allows performance to remain stable when time constraints call for a complex decision in tandem with a motor action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the respective roles of explicit rules about movement execution and direction of attention in learning and performing a novel perceptual-motor task in table tennis. The results show that the accumulation of a large number of explicit rules about task execution is detrimental to performance under pressure and secondary task loading.

Implicit motor learning is an established motor learning technique that has been largely overlooked outside of academia. It is beneficial to learners in that it allows them to perform undisrupted even in the face of stress and other adverse conditions. This is thought to be due to a reduced ability to 'reinvest' acquired knowledge -- something that can cause the performer to 'manually override' what should be an automatic movement. The problem with traditional forms of implicit motor learning is their impracticality in applied settings. To that end, in this paper we attempt to provide a jumping off point for practitioners by briefly outlining the theoretical concepts of implicit learning and the difficulties it faces. From there, we explore alternative techniques that are more practical but impart similar, if not identical, benefits to performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: In sports it may be necessary for a performer to make a decision and execute a movement in close succession, or even concurrently. The manner in which a movement is controlled may impact on the degree to which the performer is able to combine decisions and movements effectively. Previous work has shown that if control of the movement has been acquired explicitly, with a high declarative knowledge content, dual-task conditions can be disruptive to performance of the movement. Previous work has also shown that, in contrast, if movement control is acquired by analogical instruction, with a low declarative knowledge content, motor performance is unaffected by dual-task conditions. It was, therefore, hypothesised that analogy learning will reduce the performance cost associated with processing motor responses while making high-complexity decisions. Methods: Participants learnt to hit a table tennis topspin forehand using either a single analogical instruction or a set of written instructions (explicit learning). Motor performance was assessed when decisions about the direction in which to hit the ball were either low in complexity or high in complexity. Results: Low-complexity decisions had no effect on motor performance in either condition. However, high-complexity decisions caused a relative performance deterioration in the Explicit condition, but not in the Analogy condition. Conclusions: These findings extend the implicit motor learning literature by highlighting the role of analogy learning in the complex interaction between decision-making and movement control in sport. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Two experiments were conducted to examine the hypothesis that learning by analogy will invoke characteristics of an implicit mode of motor learning. In the first experiment, table tennis novices learned to hit forehand topspin implicitly, explicitly or by analogy. The results showed that the analogy and implicit learning groups accumulated equivalently fewer explicit rules than the explicit learning group during the learning phase. When a concurrent secondary task was added, the explicit learning group suffered from a significantly more serious performance impairment than the analogy and implicit learning groups; no significant differences were seen between the latter two groups. Self-perceived performance was correlated to actual performance in the explicit learning group but not in the analogy or the implicit learning groups. In the second experiment, the performance of an explicit learning group was found to be impaired by both a stress intervention and a thought suppression intervention, whereas the performance of an analogy learning group was not. These characteristics of analogy learning parallel those reported in the implicit learning literature, suggesting that analogy learning may be an effective method for teaching skills implicitly in sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]