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The authors have prepared a detailed map of Slovakia’s ecosystems, which identifies individual ecosystems and their spatial distribution, status, and selected properties. The impetus for the production of this map is the need of various stakeholders, especially nature protection bodies, forestry management, agricultural management and public administration, for better data on the distribution of ecosystems. The methodology mostly involves using GIS analytical tools to combine datasets on nature protection, forestry, and agriculture which list attributes related to habitat identification. The results can be used for ecosystem services assessment, spatial planning, nature protection analysis, and other related purposes. The spatial precision of the data is determined by that of the field data, which was mostly created at scales between 1:10000 and 1:5000. The data are stored in the form of a geodatabase containing more than 1,000,000 polygons.

In the past, historical rural Europe possessed a broad range of biological and cultural values due to landscape diversity and the use of low-impact agricultural practices. It’s typical feature was the presence of varied semi-natural habitats. The massive socioeconomic changes of the 20th caused significant loss of these habitats. The term traditional agricultural landscape (TAL) denotes the surviving remnants of this landscape heritage. Despite its exceptional value, conservation practice for TAL is very poor. The concept of “biocultural diversity” provides linkages between cultural and biological diversity and opens up new possibilities for practical conservation of TAL. In our work we have tried to develop and apply this concept. The main goal was to design an approach for assessment of biocultural value at plot level and apply it to the three different traditional rural landscapes in Slovakia—Liptovska Teplicka village, Hriňova town and Svatý Jur town, representing the most typical TAL in Slovakia. The approach was based on determination of a measurable link between ecological and cultural–historical significance. The concept of ecological significance, assessed by comparing the results of the monitoring and evaluation of taxonomic diversity and nature conservation value of vascular plant communities and selected ground-dwelling invertebrate groups (Araneae, Diplopoda, Orthoptera), was complemented by evaluation of cultural–historical significance, leading to the identification of biocultural values in TAL. These evaluations were performed on productive plots of arable lands, grasslands, vineyards, and orchards, and unproductive agrarian landforms (mostly field margins) such as terraced slopes, terraced steps, heaps, mounds and unconsolidated walls.

This article provides an overview and results of the pilot national ecosystem services assessment in Slovakia. It follows the MAES process and past ecosystem services (ES) research in Slovakia and is based on original research methodology using spatial and statistical data. The initial step of national ES assessment resulted in the selection of significant ES for the evaluation process, where 18 ES in three groups were selected (five provisioning, 10 regulatory/maintenance and three cultural ES). An original assessment model provided the theoretical and methodological framework for national ES evaluation. The principal result is an assessment of the national landscape’s capacity for ES provision, based on evaluation of the landscape units and selected properties and indicators at the ecosystem level. These inputs included habitat types and watersheds, administrative units, natural topology, geology, soils, climate, water and biota. The ES capacity models were created and evaluated for each ES, for the main groups and, finally, for overall ES provision. The highest capacity to provide ES in Slovakia comes from natural and semi-natural ecosystems, mainly deciduous, mixed and coniferous forests which cover over 38% of Slovak territory. The water ecosystems and wetlands are also significant, followed by grasslands and permanent crops. The research highlights the crucial importance of the mountainous and sub-mountainous areas in Slovakia and confirms the significant contribution of the natural and semi-natural ecosystems for ensuring ES provision.

The extensive construction of drainage systems in the lowlands and flood plains of Slovakia has significantly changed the landscape and runoff ratios of rivers. Our study focuses on the assessment of the benefits provided by the ecosystems of water ditches and their catchment areas. Ditches and their buffer zone, similarly to other artificial anthropogenic elements in the country, fulfil various landscape-ecological functions and provide different ecosystem services (ESs) to human populations and society. As study areas, we chose ditches and their 1-km buffer zones in the Podunajska nižina (P) lowland and Východoslovenska nižina (V) lowland (Slovakia). There are notable differences between these two selected lowlands. Hence, there are also differences in their potential to provide various ESs. Based on a re-evaluation of the present state of the ditches, we evaluated nine ESs related to three main groups of ESs, using the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES). We assessed the ESs and benefits provided by ditches and their buffer zone in two ways: (1) ES assessment by experts and (2) biophysical assessment of ESs and their benefits based on an integrated assessment framework (relations between pressures, ecological status, and delivery of ESs). Finally, we compared the potentials for provisioning of the study areas. The study area in the V lowland has the highest potential to provide "Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection" benefits, and the study area in the P lowland has the highest potential to provide "Surface water for non-drinking purposes."

This study presents a methodology for assessment of the condition of hiking trails (HTs) and their impact zones in the central part of the Low Tatra mountain range, based on comparison of two complex data sets gathered in 33 years apart. The first field investigation was performed in 1980 and 1981, and the second in 2013 and 2014. The main goal was to perform a landscape typology in order to assess the susceptibility of landscape complexes to occurrence of anthropogenic and natural destruction processes and to assess the condition and prospects of HTs and their impacts on the adjacent alpine environment. Landscape complexes were characterised by selected abiotic, biotic and technical parameters of HTs and their impact zones. Due to the high variability of these parameters over the length of the HTs, we had to decide on how to map them. This was done using a square grid with 100 m-sized cells. For each cell with HT, the parameters were assigned the typical value within that cell. In total, 26.3 km of HT were studied, stretching over 266 grid cells. On comparison of the two data sets, it was seen that, 64% (171 grid cells) display a generally positive condition, with 54% (143 grid cells) even exhibiting significant improvement or continuously positive state of their condition. 36% (95 grid cells) were in bad condition, including 3% (9 grid cells) whose state had deteriorated, and 2% (6 grid cells) whose state had significantly deteriorated, in the time between the two assessments.

The concept of ecosystem services has gained a strong political profile during the last 15 years. However, there is no specific EU policy devoted to the governing of ecosystem services. This article shows that the ecosystem services concept is already embedded in recent EU (environmentally-related) policies, such as the Biodiversity Strategy 2020 and the Invasive Alien Species Regulation. A review of 12 policies shows that, overall, the coherence between existing policies and the ecosystem services concept is moderate. Policies showing very high coherence are confined to the policy arenas that address natural ecosystems, forestry, or agriculture. Given the sectoral nature of most EU policies and the limited options for revision in the near future, opportunities for improving coherence are mostly expected in improving the integration of the ecosystem services concept in the implementation of existing EU policies at national and regional levels.

Faced with the disappearance and ongoing abandonment of traditional agricultural landscapes (TAL) in Europe, our primary aim is to provide scientific evidence of the importance of TAL in terms of b...

This paper provides a detailed analysis of environment policy implementation in national, regional and local landscape planning in Slovakia. The policy and strategic documents are assessed from the perspective of the ecosystem services (ES) concept which integrates environmental and economic objectives of the landscape planning. This paper builds on three main empirical elements: (1) review of key national policies in respect to landscape planning, (2) review of key local and regional planning, strategic and assessment documents, (3) stakeholder interviews and focus groups. Our results indicate that spatial planning and assessment processes in Slovakia based on legislation and regulations for individual sectors are mainly contradictory in some cases, rather than encompassing integrated (landscape) planning procedures. The ES concept has not been considered in any planning tools across scales. These results were found to be similar with respective EU policies, in which the limited uptake of the ES concept was also observed. Finally, the paper presents recommendations which can enhance spatial planning processes in Slovakia; using an ES-inspired integrated framework for landscape assessment and decision-making. Such improvement of planning and decision-making procedures can be exploited in real-world solutions, and provide long-term benefits for human well-being while still retaining links to ecosystem functions and processes.EDITED BY Sandra Luque

This paper focuses on designing an approach to monitor the effects of the Rural Development Program (RDP) on High Nature Value Farmland type 2 – farmland dominated by traditional mosaics of cultivated land and small-scale features (HNV2) – and its application to farmland in Slovakia. Based on the identification of HNV2 on the national level and selection of monitoring sites, we carried out monitoring for two periods: 1st monitoring of RDP 2007–2013 and 2nd monitoring of RDP 2014–2020. We developed a set of indicators for monitoring of HNV2, which were mapped in the field: management intensity, categories of land cover and type of management, share of semi-natural elements, management activities. The most significant changes were observed in the proportion of semi-natural vegetation and management intensity. We defined five categories of changes in management intensity: either positive – 1) improved, or 2) persistent regular management – or negative – 3) continued abandonment, 4) decrease in management intensity, or 5) intensification causing decrease of landscape diversity. The evaluation of land cover changes on the basis of landscape indices shows higher landscape diversity on sites without subsidies. This shows that subsidies are linked to farmland with less diverse landscape structure. Statistical analyses showed semi-natural vegetation to be dominant on both subsidised and unsubsidised sites. The total area of HNV2, which is one of the basic indicators evaluated under the RDP, is decreasing: partly due to updates and refinements of the Land Parcel Identification System (LPIS), and exclusion of HNV2 sites from LPIS due to a presence of woody elements, but also partly due to abandonment. The results of our study showed a slightly positive contribution of RDP to maintenance and sustainable management of HNV2.

Traditional agricultural landscapes are a mosaic of small-scale arable fields and permanent agricultural cultivations such as grasslands, vineyards and high-trunk orchards. Most of them are threatened by abandonment as they are usually situated in marginal mountain regions with less favourable conditions for agriculture. Our aim was to analyse the distribution of traditional agricultural landscapes in less favoured areas and the effects of the supportive measures of the Common Agricultural Policy, which are oriented towards helping farmers from these areas in maintaining traditional agriculture. Except for traditional agricultural vineyard landscapes, almost all TAL plots are situated in less favoured areas. Most of them are located in mountain areas with less favourable conditions for agriculture. Abandonment of traditional agricultural landscape inside the less favoured areas is significantly higher than in locations elsewhere. The supportive measures of the Common Agricultural Policy do not effectively mitigate this abandonment. If we would like to maintain traditional agricultural landscape in less favoured areas, it is necessary to stop the existing negative trend of abandonment and search for new ways to motivate farmers to continue their traditional farming by adjusting the conditions of the common agricultural policy to benefit small farmers as well.

The main aim of this study is to assess the benefits provided by the ecosystems of traditional agricultural landscapes (TAL) and compare them to the outputs of large-scale agriculture. Assessment of ecosystem services (ES) was performed in four case-study areas situated in Slovakia, representing different types of TAL: Viticultural landscape, meadow&ndash, pasture landscape, and agricultural landscape with dispersed settlements and mosaics of orchards. The methodological approach was focused on assessment of all the principal types of ES&mdash, regulation and maintenance, provisioning, and cultural. Differences in the provision of ES due to the impact of different practices and intensities of agricultural landscape management were subsequently assessed and compared. The results show that TAL are generally more diverse and balanced regarding ES provision, mainly because of their varied patterns and their related functions. In particular they play an important role in water retention and the prevention of soil erosion&mdash, both important with respect to changes in climate. Modern intensive agriculture is principally able to fulfil the production functions. Support for traditional farming, landscape diversification and small-scale agricultural management is vital for enhancing the values of rural regions. Such measures could become key drivers for sustainable agricultural management in Slovakia, and elsewhere.

Hay-making structures are part of the agricultural landscape of meadows and pastures. Hay meadows are still used and found all over Europe, but their distribution patterns as well as their characteristics and regional features depend on geographical area, climate, culture, and intensity of agriculture. Intensively used hay meadows are the most dominant, using heavy machinery to store hay mostly as rounded or square bales. Traditional hay-making structures represent structures or constructions, used to quickly dry freshly cut fodder and to protect it from humidity. The &lsquo, ancient&rsquo, forms of traditional hay-making structures are becoming a relic, due to mechanisation and the use of new technologies. Both the need for drying hay and the traditional methods for doing so were similar across Europe. Our study of hay-making structures focuses on their current state, their development and history, current use and cultural values in various European countries. Regarding the construction and use of hay-making structures, we have distinguished three different types, which correlate to natural and regional conditions: (1) temporary hay racks of various shapes, (2) hay barracks, a special type of shelters for storing hay and (3) different types of permanent construction and buildings for drying and storing hay. Hay-making structures have been mostly preserved in connection with traditional agricultural landscapes, and particularly in the more remote regions or where associated with strong cultural identity.

This article presents the integrated approach to sustainable land use management based on the assessment of land use and related land cover changes. Land use changes are conditioned by human activities producing changes in landscape cover and initiating processes which cause many environmental problems. It is therefore important to determine the drivers and causality of landscape changes which can then be negated to ensure sustainable land use management. The integrated landscape research approach is based on understanding landscape as a geo-ecosystem with natural, human, cultural, and historical potential. Our aim is to define the aspects of land use management which can regulate social development. The proposal for optimal land use is based on the interaction between natural capital, represented by the supply of natural regional resources and environmental conditions as well as demand represented by community need for development. The conflict between the supply of natural capital and demands lacking respect for landscape resources is an important determining factor in environmental and human problems. The integrated approach is focused on long-term rational utilization of the natural and cultural-historical resources, urban development, and the elimination of current environmental and socioeconomic problems as well as the prevention of new ones. Multi-criteria analysis is required for final environmental decision-making.