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Evening Primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) is an industrial crop-producing seed with high oil concentration characterized by high gamma-linoleic acid. However, limited information is available on its response to the nutrient supply, especially P and K. The aim of this work was to compare the response of Evening Primrose to the application of N, P, and K alone or in combination in a P and K deficient soil in terms of grain yield, yield components, and oil composition in comparison to Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). Evening Primrose yielded 54.4% less seed and 67.3% less oil than Rapeseed. Such differences were reduced when nutrients, especially N or P, were applied. N stimulated Evening Primrose more than Rapeseed. Application of K favored Evening Primrose oil yield when no N or P were added, and this especially occurred by an enhancement of the pod number. P favored yield per pod and oil yield in the Evening Primrose more than Rapeseed in almost all conditions. Fertilization scarcely affected lipid composition. In particular, an increase in the oleic acid concentration was found only when N + K or N + P + K were applied compared to the sole N or sole K applications. These results suggest that P and K differentially influenced yield components of both species and that Evening Primrose was less adapted than Rapeseed to a scarce nutrient supply, This research was supported by funding from the Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University (Egypt), National Research Centre (Egypt), Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University (Egypt), the Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA-IT), and the and the Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa

Industries currently rely on chicory and Jerusalem artichoke for inulin extraction but also cardoon is proved to synthetize and store high quantity of inulin in roots as well. Cardoon is a multipurpose crop, well adapted to marginal lands, whose main residues at the end of cropping cycle consist of roots. However, cardoon roots are a suitable source of inulin, that is of high interest for new generation biodegradable bioplastics production. On the other hand, a sustainable supply chain for inulin production from cardoon roots has not been developed yet. In particular, in the inulin supply chain the most critical part is storage, which can negatively affect both cost and inulin quantity. In the present study the effect on inulin content in cardoon roots stored as dried chipped roots (CRt) and dried whole roots (WRt) was investigated in a 6-month storage trial. Our findings suggest that chipping before storage did not affect the inulin content during the storage. Furthermore, it reduced the time needed for drying by 33.3% and increased the bulk density by 154.9% with the consequent reduction of direct cost for drying, transportation and storage., This research was performed within the Italian Project COMETA-Autoctone Mediterranean crops and their valorization with advanced green chemistry technologies. The project was funded by Ministry of Education, Universities and Research in the frame of PON "Ricerca e Innovazione" 2014���2020 and FSC/ARS01_00606 COMETA/CUP. B2G18000180004/Azione II.

Increasing aridity and subsequent water scarcity are currently among the major problems of agriculture. Rainwater harvesting could represent a way to tackle this issue, and, as a consequence, scientific research has been more and more focused on such topic. On the other hand, few scientific studies related to economic and environmental assessment of rainwater harvesting systems in agriculture are available. The present study carried out an economic and environmental analysis of two different systems for rainwater harvesting: a typical pond and an innovative flexible water storage system (FWSS). The environmental and economic performance of the systems was compared using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) methodologies, referring to a functional unit (FU) of 1 m3 of storable water. The FWSS showed better environmental end economic performance than the pond system, resulting with both lower environmental impacts (17.04 g per m3 CO2vs 28.2 g per m3 CO2) and lower costs (16.94 € per m3vs 20.41 € per m3). Moreover, the pond system was more impactful than the FWSS for all the 17 categories investigated. Therefore, the FWSS can be a suitable solution for water harvesting in agriculture sector, showing interesting features for farmers.

The growing demand in food and non-food industries for camelina oil is driving the interest of farmers and contractors in investing in such feedstock. Nonetheless, the cost, performance and critical aspects related to the harvesting stage are still not properly investigated. In the present study, an ad-hoc test was performed in Spain in order to fulfill this gap. The results support the hypothesis to harvest camelina seeds with the same combine harvester used for cereal harvesting without further investment. Theoretical field capacity (TFC), effective field capacity (EFC), material capacity (MC), and field efficiency (FE) were 4.34 ha h&minus, 1, 4.22 ha h&minus, 1, 4.66 Mg h&minus, 1 FM, and 97.24%, respectively. The harvesting cost was estimated in 48.51 &euro, ha&minus, 1. Approximately, the seed loss of 0.057 &plusmn, 0.028 Mg ha&minus, 1 FM was due to the impact of the combine harvester header and dehiscence of pods, whilst 0.036 &plusmn, 0.006 Mg ha&minus, 1 FM of seeds were lost due to inefficiency of the threshing system of the combine harvester. Adjustment of the working speed of the combine and the rotation speed of the reel may help to reduce such loss.

Irrigation with wastewater can strongly contribute to the reduction of water abstraction in agriculture with an especial interest in arid and semiarid areas. However, its use can have drawbacks to both soil and micro-irrigation systems, especially when the total solids in the wastewater are high, such as in digestate liquid fractions (DLF) from plant material. The aim of this study was thus to evaluate the performances of a serpentine shaped micro-emitter injected with a hydrocyclone filtered DLF (HF-DLF) from corn + barley biomass and evaluate the traits of the liquid released within a 8-h irrigation cycle. HF-DLF was injected at 10%, 25%, and 50% dilution compared to tap water (at pH = 7.84) and the system performances were measured. No clogging was found, which likely depended on both the shape of the emitter and the high-pressure head (200 kPa). HF-DLF dilution at 10%, 25%, and 50% consisted in +1.9%, +3.5, and &minus, 4.9% amount of liquid released compared to the control. Fluid temperature during irrigation (from 9:00 to 17:00) did not explain the difference in the released amounts of liquid. In 10% HF-DLF % and 25% HF-DLF, a pH difference of + 0.321 &plusmn, 0.014 pH units compared to the control was found, and such difference was constant for both dilutions and at increasing the time. In contrast, 50% HF-DLF increased pH by around a half point and such difference increased with time. Similar differences among treatments were found for the total solids in the liquid. These results indicate that 50% HF-DLF was accumulating materials in the serpentine. These results suggest that a low diluted HF-DLF could directly be injected in irrigation systems with few drawbacks for the irrigation system and contribute to water conservation since such wastewater are available from the late spring to the early fall, when water requirements are high.

The valorization of agricultural residues plays a fundamental role in renewable energy production. Particularly, the management of olive orchards in Lazio region generates a considerable amount of biomass that is currently unexploited, but it could represent a valid source of solid biofuel for energy production in the Lazio region (Italy). Using a Geographic Information System (GIS) approach entirely based on open source software, five suitable areas (A, B, C, D and E) have been selected as eligible for hosting and feeding a 1 MWe power plant. Harvesting and transportation costs were also calculated. The harvesting operation costs were EUR 96.79 Mgfm−1 in A, while they ranged from EUR 49.83 Mgfm−1 (E) up to EUR 56.51 Mgfm−1 (D) for the other sub-areas. Sub-area A showed also higher transport costs, EUR 21.55 Mgfm−1 while the same value ranged from EUR 14.75 Mgfm−1 (E) to EUR 16.59 Mgfm−1 (B) in the other sub-areas. However harvesting costs resulted higher than those reported in the literature, mainly due to the low pruning yield per surface unit, an aspect which is directly related to the olive grove’s management in the region where annual pruning is the usual practice. Future developments of the present study should encompass the social and environmental aspects of residual biomass supply chains herein proposed.

This study aims to analyze the economic and environmental sustainability of a case study of an energy power plant that produces electricity from pruning residues of olive groves from nine municipalities in southern Italy. To assess the economic sustainability of the agro-energetic chain, the profitability and efficiency ratios are calculated. Moreover, the GHG emissions of the agro-energetic pruning supply chain due to both the pruning collection at the field level, and their combustion for energy production at the power plant, are calculated. To put together the environmental and economic evaluations, the ecoefficiency ratio was calculated to measure the value added per 1Mg of GHG emitted into the atmosphere. The findings show the whole agro-energetic chain, namely the power plant and the collection company have both a good return on owner&rsquo, s equity (ROE) ratio (15.89% and 31.48%, respectively) and ROI ratio (4.34% and 6.14% respectively). Moreover, the power plant&rsquo, s ecoefficiency ratio (2.64&euro, per 1Mg of GHG) is slightly lower than harvest firm one (2.91&euro, per 1Mg of GHG). The findings could be useful to develop new business models based on the circular economy concept. In fact, the business model proposed could push entrepreneurs towards new income opportunities, at the same time, helping local farms and reducing the environmental impacts.

In cereal crops, chaff is a valuable lignocellulosic by-product that accounts for more than50 Mt y-1 in Europe and is suitable for bioenergy purposes. Chaff is usually not collected due tothe lack of combine harvesters that have the capability to handle it properly. The present two yearsexperimental study investigated the hypothesis that the overall biomass collected in wheat crop canbe increased by equipping the combine harvester with an aftermarket device. Chaff, dischargedfrom the combine harvester-cleaning system, is collected by the turbine that delivers it either on theswath or on a lateral trailer towed by a tractor. The performance of all machines involved in theharvesting (combine harvester, tractor, baler, and trailer) were assessed. The chaff was collected in bales with the straw (A mode) and separately on a trailer (C mode). Comparisons with non-collected treatment (B mode) were performed in order to estimate the total chaff collected and the biomasslosses. The results showed that 1.79 t FM ha-1 per year of chaff could be collected when baled with thestraw, whereas 1.27 t FM ha-1 were collected separately on a trailer. Both field and material capacitywere not negatively affected by the chaff collection. Therefore, our study confirmed the hypothesis that turbine technology is a valid solution for increasing the total residual biomass collected in cerealcropping for energy purposes.

Pruning residues could represent an important biomass resources for energy production.Only in Italy it has been estimated that an annual quantity of biomass of over 2600 kt of dry matter could be obtained from olive residues. Several machines developed for pruning harvesting are available in the market, most of which are tractor-driven, while limited knowledge is available onperformance, quality of work and costs of harvesting logistics based on stationary chippers. The aim of the present paper is to analyze machine performance of a forestry stationary chipper applied to pruning harvesting for what concerns work productivity, quality of the comminuted product and harvesting operating costs. This system is actually applied by Fiusis Company, an Italian enterprise which manages a biomass power plant exclusively powered by olive trees’ pruning residues, and it has never been analyzed in literature. The results obtained showed consistent work productivity,which resulted the highest ever found in olive pruning harvesting systems and equal to 5.23 tdm h-1. This high work productivity allowed also to obtain a little economic gain from a matter,which is actually considered a problem for olive groves’ owners and not a potential source of income.In particular, the use of a stationary chipper seemed very efficient in olive groves with a consistentamount of wooden residues to be processed and with big branches not harvestable by the most common towed pruning harvester. In addition, the stationary chipper has the advantage of avoiding the preliminary raking operation, which results in reduced costs for the farmer.

The growing demand for biomass for energy use has led equipment manufacturers to focus their attention on the management of pruning wastes and on finding solutions for recovering such a huge amount of biomass. The first attempt consisted of adapting mulchers, which were used to incorporate these wastes into the soil; interest later shifted towards chippers and balers, which were able to produce a high-grade fuel. Two innovative prototypes for pruning waste collection were developed within the EuroPruning Project: a baler (PRB 1.75) designed by PIMR research institute (Poland), and a chipper (PC50) designed by the machine manufacturer ONG s. n.c. (Italy) with the scientific support of the CREA-IT institute (Italy). The main goal was to design special machines to harvest multiple types of pruning wastes from permanent crops and to build a sustainable and cost-effective supply chain. Both prototypes showed encouraging results. Their performances were largely comparable with those reported for similar machines, showing values of losses ranging from 36.2 to 46.2% and a maximum productivity of 2.80 (PC50) and 3.03 tfm h−1 (PRB1.75). Moreover, the particle size distribution in the feedstock produced by the chipper PC50 complies with the international standard for the commercial category P45. This study reports on the performance of both prototypes and the quality of the product obtained during the preliminary harvest-pruning tests carried out in vineyards and in peach and apple orchards.

Wood residues generated from orchard maintenance operations represent a serious disposal problem, as well as a valuable opportunity for the bioenergy sector. However, their widespread use as renewable fuel is hindered by uncertainty about crucial quality issues, such as: ash content, ash melting behavior and chemical composition. This paper investigates the main physical and chemical characteristics of pruning residues generated by five of the most common European orchard crops: vine, olive, apple, pear and hazelnut. The results of the analyses are contrasted with the quality specifications set by EU standard UNI EN 14961-1 2010 for forest residues, in the absence of a standard specifically designed for orchard pruning residues. All tested orchard residues biomasses fulfill set specifications, and they also present similar characteristics in terms of ash content, size distribution and heating value. However, the chemical composition of pear and vine residues may raise some concern, due to the high content of nitrogen of the former, and to the high ash, sulfur and chlorine content of the latter. Olive and hazelnut pruning residues seem the most suitable for direct combustion, probably because the origin crops are cultivated less intensively and receive smaller chemical inputs.

The pappi of cardoon ( Cynara cardunculus L.) flowers form a crown of plumose filaments which aid the wind dispersal of the seeds connected to them. The high cellulose content of this fraction can be a valuable raw material for fiber or pulp products. During threshing, the pappi are discharged together with the other biomass, but as they are liable to blow away, they fly away during discharging and from the windrow. As the biomass is baled within 3–4 h after harvesting, the objective of the study was to test a wetting system applied to a combine and the effect of some adjuvant in limiting pappi dispersal caused by the wind. The system included a water tank (1 m 3 ), an electric pump, a flow regulator, and three pairs of nozzles to spray the solution onto the threshed material discharged from the rear of the combine. Four adjuvants in two concentrations were used to extend the retention time. The percentage of retention was evaluated on an artificial surface (plastic panels) and on the crop residues left in the windrows behind the combine. The retention time analysis was made one (T1) and four hours (T4) after harvesting. On the plastic panels, the pappi treated just with water showed a low level of sticking because the covered area had decreased by 92.9% at T1 compared to the time of harvesting (T0). The amount of pappi remaining on the windrow at T4 proved the efficacy of one of the adjuvants (AL-02) in limiting dispersal (52.8 kg ha −1 ), bearing in mind that without wetting (untreated), the amount remaining was seven times less (7.51 kg ha −1 ). Therefore, wetting appears a feasible option, compared to no treatment, to keep a certain amount of pappi on the soil. In order to reduce the dispersal and to increase the recovery of the pappi, the combine (equipped with the wetting system) should be rapidly followed by a baler, before the wetting effect disappears.

Reed represents an opportunity fuel that can be obtained from wetland restoration activities designed for reducing the dominance of invasive reed over native matrix vegetation. Equipment used for reed recovery must be light enough to negotiate soft terrain. At the same time, it needs to be versatile, so that investment cost is depreciated on a variety of different tasks, given the seasonal character of reed collection. The study tested a new system designed for harvesting reed during winter, under unfrozen soil conditions. This system was based on a modified snowcat (trail groomer) and on light orchard tractors, for maximum floatation. Reed chopping, windrowing, baling and extraction took 12 h ha −1 and incurred a cost of 500 € ha −1 , or 111 € t −1 dry matter. Assuming that reed biomass would obtain a price of 80 € t −1 dry matter, the cost of reed control would amount to 160 € ha −1 , which is better than the 242 € ha −1 required for chopping to waste. Furthermore, savings can be accrued by better operator selection (baling) and by improving extraction technique, which would bring reed collection cost below 100 € ha −1 . Reed biomass has favourable fuel qualities, including low water mass fraction. For this reason, reed can be used to build a strategic reserve to be tapped in winter, at times of peak demand. Furthermore, reed grows on land that is not suitable for other uses, and therefore it is unlikely to compete with food crops.

Maize and wheat are two of the most widespread crops worldwide because of their highyield and importance for food, chemical purposes and livestock feed. Some of the residues of thesecrops (i.e., maize cob and wheat chaff) remain in the field after grain harvesting. In Europe, just maizecob and grain chaff could provide an annual potential biomass of 9.6 Mt and 54.8 Mt, respectively. Collecting such a biomass could be of interest for bioenergy production and could increase farmers’ income. Progress in harvest technology plays a key role in turning untapped by-products into valuablefeedstocks. This article presents a study of the erformance and the quality of the work of Harcob, an innovative system developed for maize cob collection. Furthermore, the feasibility of using the Harcob system to also harvest wheat chaff during wheat harvesting was also verified. The resultsshowed that it was possible to harvest 1.72 t ha-1 and 0.67 t ha-1 of cob and chaff, respectively, withoutaffecting the harvesting performance of the combine. The profit achievable from harvesting the corncob was around 4%, while no significant economic benefits were observed during the harvesting ofwheat chaff with the Harcob system. The use of cereal by-products for energy purposes may allowthe reduction of CO2 from fossil fuel between 0.7 to 2.2 t CO2 ha-1. The Harcob system resultedsuitable to harvest such different and high potential crop by-products and may represent a solutionfor farmers investing in the bioenergy production chain.

Eucalyptus spp. has received attention from the research and industrial field as a biomass crop because of its fast growth and high productivity. The features of this species match with the increasing demand for wood for energy production. Commonly, the wood used for energy production is converted in chips, a material susceptible to microbial degradation and energy losses if not properly stored before conversion. This study aims at investigating two outdoor storage systems of Eucalyptus wood chips (covered vs. uncovered), assessing the variation in moisture content, dry matter losses and fuel characteristics. The class size of the material was P16, which was obtained using a commercial chipper appositely searched to conduct the study. The results highlighted how the different storage methods were influenced by the climatic condition: the woody biomass covered showed the best performances in terms of dry matter losses achieving 2.7% losses vs. the 8.5% of the uncovered systems. However, fuel characteristics displayed minor changes that affected the final energy balance (∆En = −0.2% in covered; ∆En = −6.17% in uncovered). Particle size varied in both methods with respect to the start conditions, but the variation was not enough to determine a class change, which remained P16 even after storage.

Drying is a critical point for the exploitation of biomass for energy production. High moisture content negatively affects the efficiency of power generation in combustion and gasification systems. Different types of dryers are available however; it is known that rotary dryers have low cost of maintenance and consume 15% and 30% less in terms of specific energy. The study analyzed the drying process of woody residues using a new prototype of mobile rotary dryer cocurrent flow. Woodchip of poplar (Populus spp.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), and grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) pruning were dried in a rotary drier. The drying cycle lasted 8 h for poplar, 6 h for black locust, and 6 h for pruning of grapevine. The initial biomass had a moisture content of around 50% for the poplar and around 30% for grapevine and black locust. The study showed that some characteristics of the biomass (e.g., initial moisture content, particle size distribution, bulk density) influence the technical parameters (i.e., airflow temperature, rate, and speed) of the drying process and, hence, the energy demand. At the end of the drying process, 17% of water was removed for poplar wood chips and 31% for grapevine and black locust wood chips. To achieve this, result the three-biomass required 1.61 (poplar), 0.86 (grapevine), and 1.12 MJ kgdry solids−1 (black locust), with an efficiency of thermal drying (η) respectively of 37%, 12%, and 27%. In the future, the results obtained suggest an increase in the efficiency of the thermal insulation of the mobile dryer, and the application of the mobile dryer in a small farm, for the recovery of exhaust gases from thermal power plants.

Cardoon ( Cynara cardunculus L.) is a promising crop for utilizing marginal lands. In these terrains, the lack of adequate tillage or soil levelling and the excessive presence of stones requires a high cutting height during harvesting, with remarkable biomass loss occurring. CREA-ING designed a new flexible bar driven by a system for sensing and signalling the presence of obstacles during the forward of motion of a combine harvester. A test-track was prepared to monitor the activation sequence of three sensor systems placed on the cutter bar as follows: four piston transducers measuring the flexion of the blade and counter-blade, two opposite wire transducers computing the movements of the blade-holder hinged on the left and right side of the frame, and one wire transducer placed between the head and the combine for measuring the lifting of the head operated by the hydraulic system. The combine was driven at an average speed of 0.7 km h −1 on a row of progressively higher obstacles (from 10 to 40 cm) placed in lateral, intermediate and central positions. The tests were carried out in the left half of the cutter bar. The output sent by the different sensors varied as a function of their position and the position of the obstacle, thus highlighting that the presence of an obstacle was correctly perceived by the sensor system. The signals originated from the left and right transducers had opposite trends. At the narrow “bell-shape” showed by the graph of the left transducer corresponded to a “reversed” bell generated by the right transducer, thus representing graphically the flexibility of the bar. The four piston transducers detected the necessary flexion, then lift and return the cutter bar to the starting point in response to each obstacle. The head lifting varied from 1.25 s to 2.51 s, but a threshold value could be observed as follows: below 25 cm the lifting occurred between 1.0 s and 1.5 s, while for higher obstacles the head lifting required 2.0–2.5 s. Such movement was the result of the signals sent by the sensors to the control unit before the head lifting began. The difference between the input sent by the transducers and the head lifting ranged from 1.22 s to 2.54 s in relation to the position of the obstacle. The tests showed that the head elements activated efficiently during the overcoming of an obstacle. However, if increasing speeds are needed, the reduction of Δ Act or D sig will require a modification of the electrohydraulic components.

Reed is an invasive perennial grass that grows on wetlands and spreads to the detriment of other native species. The eventual dominance of reed may cause a severe loss of plant species diversity, and dramatically alter natural habitats. Reed control can follow a number of different practices, which are all expensive. However, the financial sustainability of reed control can be increased by turning reed biomass into energy feedstock, delivered to local wood-fuelled facilities. In this experiment, invasive reed was cut, windrowed, baled and extracted to the roadside using versatile equipment borrowed from agriculture, in order to minimize investment cost. Efficient operation allowed to contain the collection cost and possibly accrued some profit. In the worst case scenario, collection may still incur small financial losses, which are not larger than the cost of less desirable cutting-to-waste. The quality of reed fuel is quite good, because the collection system allows for efficient reed drying and chopped reed does not seem to cause any major slagging problems, contrary to straw.

The exploitation of energy crops requires the assessment of their sustainability in terms of both economic and environmental cost. Among the agronomic practices applied for giant reed ( Arundo donax L.) production, harvesting may weigh for a relative high percentage on the overall balance. Till now, conventional and modified machinery have been used for the production of different type of biomass (shredded, chipped, baled). In the present study an economic and energy analysis of harvesting systems and biomass transport has been conducted considering three actual cases of study representative of common harvesting systems in Italy and Spain: single-pass (chipping and loading) and two passes (mowing plus chipping and loading or crushing and windrowing plus baling). The aim of the work was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness and the environmental sustainability of the different options. The number of operations (single or two passes) did not weigh on the final result, and the economic criterion did not coincide with the energy one. The cost of harvesting for the single-pass system was the lowest (17.9 € t dm −1 ), but the economic costs of the whole chain (harvesting and transport) were more convenient for baling, and the energy demand of both systems was similar. Evidence was provided that factors like type of machinery, effective field capacity, yield, moisture content, bulk density and crop uniformity influenced the harvesting costs (from both economic and energy viewpoints) and the delivery of the biomass from the field to the first collection point. Therefore, a case-by-case analysis is recommended in order to optimize the logistics of a particular bioenergy plant.

Cardoon seeds have been proved to thrive in the Mediterranean region, even under low input management and its biomass is suitable for several food and industrial uses. Despite that, a proper value chain has not been set properly and uncertainty still lays among producers and industries, particularly concerning the harvesting stage. The present study supports, via field trials, the hypothesis that cardoon seeds can be harvested using a conventional combine harvester equipped with the sunflower header. Theoretical field capacity (TFC), effective field capacity (EFC), and field efficiency (FE) were 2.36 ha h−1, 2.05 ha h−1, and 1.82 Mg h−1, respectively, while harvesting costs were calculated as 69.52 € ha−1. Seed loss was only 3.2% w/w of the potential seed yield. The machinery’s performance, costs, and seed loss are comparable with sunflower harvesting, underlying the possibility to use the available technology directly to harvest cardoon seeds.

Camelina is a low input crop than can be cultivated in rotation with cereals to provide vegetable oil suitable for bioenergy production, industrial applications and even as source of food for livestock. At large scale farming, camelina seeds are currently harvested using a combine harvester, equipped with a cereal header, but the literature still lacks the knowledge of the performance of the machine, the harvesting cost and the related loss of seeds. The present study aims to fulfill that gap by reporting the results obtained from an ad hoc harvest field test. Camelina seed yield was 0.95 Mg ha−1 which accounted for the 18.60% of the total above ground biomass. Theoretical field capacity, effective field capacity and field efficiency were 3.38 ha h−1, 3.17 ha h−1 and 93.7% respectively, albeit the seed loss was 80.1 kg ha−1 FM (7.82% w/w of the potential seed yield). The presence of material other than grain was rather high, 31.77% w/w, which implies a second step of cleaning to avoid undesired modification of the seed quality. Harvesting cost was estimated in 65.97 € ha−1. Our findings provide evidence on the suitability to use a conventional combine harvester equipped with a cereal header for the harvesting of camelina seeds, although some improvements are required to reduce both seed loss and impurities.

Eucalyptus spp. are among the most suitable species for biomass production, even for the firewood derived from medium-rotation coppice (MRC). The general problem of wood is that it cannot be utilized immediately because of the high moisture content, which in the combustion process would reduce remarkably the yield of energy. In this context, outdoor storage of whole stems without branches (WS), outdoor storage of whole stems with branches (WSB), open shed storage of firewood logs in mesh bags (OSF), and outdoor firewood logs in mesh bags (ODF) of Eucalyptus spp woody biomass were compared in term of moisture and dry matter loss to evaluate the most convenient form of storing biomass deriving from a medium-rotation coppice. During the storage period, ODF showed higher moisture values than OSF, WSB, and WS, underlining that moisture reduction is related to local climatic conditions, pile size and permeability (compaction). However, at the end of the storage period, the four options reached a similar moisture to the commercial one of fuel wood (around 15%). WSB showed the highest loss of dry matter (18%), which can be ascribed to the drying and falling process of the leaves. In conclusion, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the biomass were similar after the different storage systems, producing firewood suitable for new market opportunities.

A big amount of agricultural residues are generated from crop production and partiallyremain in the field after harvest. Removing the excess of residues after crop harvesting can increasefarmer income, providing feedstock that could be used for industrial and energy purposes. The costsfor collection and transport of straw and stalks are site- and region-specific and depend on theavailability of agricultural residue and on how much of the residue is removed from any specificfield or location. If the biomass is baled then it is required to upload the bales on a trailer, transportand unload all the baled biomass to the storage center. On the other hand, if a self-loading wagon is used the loose biomass collected, it must be unloaded every time the wagon is completely full.The distance and the harvesting system used influence the costs and should be analytically studiedto avoid turning a possible profit into a disadvantageous business. The research represents a realcase study to evaluate, which is the maximum distance to the biomass logistic center from whichit is more economically convenient to gather the wheat and corn residues in bales instead of usinga self-loading wagon. The results show a lower harvesting unitary cost for the self-loading foragewagon respect to the balingsystem. Although the study showed delivery distances over 11.4 kmfor wheat straw and 16.0 km for maize stalks, the use of the self-loading forage wagon is no longerconvenient, and baling is the preferred harvesting system.

Jatropha (Jatropha curcas, L.) is an energy crop mainly cultivated for the oil-seed, and the oil is usually used as bio-fuel. However, few studies have reported information about the utilization of the wood as a fuel for boiler heating systems. With 2500 jatropha trees per hectare, it is possible to produce about 3 t&middot, ha&minus, 1&middot, y&minus, 1 of woody biomass from pruning. In addition, jatropha trees are commonly cut down to a height of 45 cm once every 10 years, with a production of 80 t&middot, 1 of dry matter of woody biomass. The use of this biomass has not yet been investigated. During the European project JatroMed, woody biomass from jatropha pruning was collected in Morocco. Chemical and physical characteristics of the wood were conducted according to UNI EN ISO standards. The following jatropha wood characteristics have been analyzed: Moisture and ash contents, the ash melting point, heating value, and concentrations of C, H, N, and S. This research focused on the evaluation of the potential use of jatropha pruning for energy production, and the results represent critical data that is useful for future studies and business potential.

Giant reed (Arundo donax L.) is a C3 perennial rhizomatous grass belonging to the Gramineae family, originating in Asia and later spreading to different subtropical wetlands and warm-temperature regions of Europe, Africa, North America, and Oceania. A wide range of yields is reported in the literature depending on the site, climate, soil type and fertility, inputs, cultivation and harvest practices, and age of plantation. Although it produces flowers, seeds are not fertile. Consequently, its propagation is carried out mainly by rhizomes or stem cuttings. Giant reed has an uncommonly high photosynthetic capacity as compared to other C3 species, and is very similar to those of C4 species. It is able to achieve high photosynthetic rates, up to ∼38 μmol CO2 m−2 s−1 in well-watered treatments, but with substantial transpiration, leading to low or at least lower water use efficiency than many C4 crops (1.19–2.47 g kg−1), but is still more efficient than most C3 species. Radiation use efficiency increases proportionally as nitrogen and available water are increased, and can range from 1.26 to 2.02 g MJ−1, although higher values of 5.74 g MJ−1-intercepted photosynthetically active radiation are also reported. These are much lower than miscanthus, a typical C4 species. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) can range from 168.4 to 467 g g−1; single and late harvests, young plantations, and low nitrogen rates lead to increased NUE. Giant reed is also considered as a moderately saline-sensitive plant as it was able to maintain >50% of its relative growth when salinity was

This paper aims to assess and compare the sustainability of rapeseed and sunflower crop cultivation for energy purposes in Italy, by considering environmental and economic performances at the farm level. The analysis focused on twelve representative farming units that were extracted from a sample of 396 farms by applying a cluster analysis. Using an Attributional Life Cycle Assessment method, the values of midpoint environmental impact categories and the carbon footprint of the twelve farms were assessed. The economic performance of rapeseed and sunflower per 1 Mg of biomass cultivation was measured in terms of the value added. In order to combine an environmental and economic assessment, the eco-efficiency ratio was applied to measure the value added per Mg of greenhouse gasses emitted into the atmosphere. Three rapeseed farms had the lowest GHG emissions of the whole sample. Practices of intensive farming with high fertilization and mechanization (fertilizer and machinery production and usage) are known to have a negative environmental impact. When the level of productivity is low, the impact is still higher. Regarding the eco-efficiency ratio, of the twelve representative farming units, results showed again that the three rapeseed farms had the highest eco-efficiency ratio. Summarizing both perspectives, findings from the eco-efficiency analysis gave a premium to rapeseed over sunflower crop in terms of the economic value added per kg of GHGs emitted into the atmosphere. The study findings presented a complex picture of the crops and of agricultural practices of each farm that underlines the variability and sensitivity of results in specific case studies. Indeed, the complexity of the matter, including the implications of bioenergy crops for energy and food safety beyond the environmental and economic assessment of the cultivation phase, cannot be ignored. Further studies are needed to apply a multiple perspective to the joint analysis of the sustainability of agricultural processes related to first generation bioenergy crops.

Annual use, utilization, productivity and fuel consumption of three purpose-built and three excavator-based harvesters and processors were monitored for one work year. All machines were owned and operated by private contractors and were representative of the Italian machine fleet. Despite challenging mountain terrain, annual use ranged from 675 to 1525 h per year, and production from 3200 to 27,400 m3 per year. Productivity was lower for excavator-based units, and for machines working under a yarder, due to limited yarder capacity. Purpose-built machines offered higher utilization, productivity and fuel efficiency compared with excavator-based machines. Fuel consumption per m3 was 2.4 times greater for excavator-based units, compared with purpose-built machines. Excavator-based units offered financial and technical advantages, but their long-term market success will likely depend on future improvements in fuel efficiency, in the face of increasing fuel prices.

Advanced Biofuels steadily developed during recent year, with several highly innovative processes and technologies explored at various scales: among these, lignocellulosic ethanol and CTO (Crude Tall Oil)-biofuel technologies already achieved early-commercial status, while hydrotreating of vegetable oils is today fully commercial, with almost 3.5 Mt/y installed capacity worldwide. In this context, microalgae grown in salt-water and arid areas represent a promising sustainable chain for advanced biofuel production but, at the same time, they also represent a considerable challenge. Processing microalgae in an economic way into a viable and sustainable liquid biofuel (a low-cost mass-product) is not trivial. So far, the most studied microalgae-based biofuel chain is composed by microorganism cultivation, lipid accumulation, oil extraction, co-product valorization, and algae oil conversion through conventional esterification into Fatty Acids Methyl Esters (FAME), i.e. Biodiesel, or Hydrotreated Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA), the latter representing a very high quality drop-in biofuel (suitable either for road transport or for aviation). However, extracting the algae oil at low cost and industrial scale is not yet a mature process, and there is not yet industrial production of algae-biofuel from these two lipid-based chains. Another option can however be considered: processing the algae through dedicated thermochemical reactors into advanced biofuels, thus approaching the downstream processing of algae in a completely different way than separation. The present work examines the possible routes for thermochemical conversion of microalgae into liquid biofuels, distinguishing between dry-processes (namely Pyrolysis, PO) and wet-processes (near critical-water HydroThermal Liquefaction, HTL). A literature review on algae-HTL was carried out, distinguishing between batch and continuous experiments, and compared to original results from algae pyrolysis. In particular, pyrolysis was carried out on both starved (lipid-accumulated) and non-starved microalgae. Typical composition of major products is given for both PO and HTL, comparing the main characteristic of the products. Major engineering advantages and challenges in thermochemical conversion of algae into liquid biofuels were identified and discussed for both processes, in view of the production of a transport biofuel and the full exploitation of this renewable feedstock in energy and biorefinery complexes.

A continuous oxidative carbonization pilot unit, with a capacity of 50 kg/h,has been developed and builtby RE-CORD; reported performance data shows that the unit can produce high quality charcoal, suitable for BBQ, metallurgy of activated-carbon manufacturing, as well as biochar. Charcoal yield in excess of 24 wt% (dry) has been achieved, with a fixed carbon content higher than 85 wt% (dry). In this work,the up-scaled 250 kg/h demo plant has been designed, and the construction, operation and maintenancecosts estimated. It was assumed to feed the plant with a dedicated SRF of either poplar or robinia, which represents a very innovative and yet unexplored value chain. Performance data are reported along with economic evaluation of the whole chain. Results shows how aland management scheme based on SRF coupled to innovative small-scale biomass carbonization technology represents an appealing opportunity for business diversification in small and medium forestry enterprises.

International audience; AbstractKey messageMechanized cutting may result in higher stump damage levels, especially if cutting is performed with shears. Nevertheless, stumps cut with mechanized technology do not show higher mortality rates than do stumps cut manually with a chainsaw. One-year growth is also unaffected, and so is nutrient balance within the stump.ContextCoppice harvesting must be mechanized in order to modernize coppice management, so that it can grow along with the dynamic new bio-economy. However, foresters are concerned that mechanized cutting may result in higher stump damage levels, which may cause increased mortality and lower growth rates.AimsThe goal of the study was to compare manual and mechanized cutting in terms of cut quality, stump damage levels, stump mortality, re-sprouting vigor, and shoot growth.MethodsThe study was conducted in a classic Mediterranean coppice stand located in central Italy. The oak-dominated coppice was cut using a chainsaw (control), a disk saw and a shear. The experiment adopted a split-plot design, based on 5 plots divided into 15 subplots (1 subplot per plot and technology). Overall, 344 stumps were selected, tagged, and monitored over the first growing season after cutting. Stump size, cutting height, and cutting damage were determined right after cutting. At the end of the first growing season, the following parameters were also recorded: no. of shoots; height, diameter, and type of the tallest five shoots. Samples were collected from randomly selected stumps during the main phenological phases in order to determine the content of C, N, starch, and soluble sugar, as well as the C/N ratio.ResultsMortality ranged from 4 to 8%. Re-sprouting was generally vigorous, with dominant shoots often exceeding the height of 1.5 m after 1 year. Cutting technology had a significant effect on cutting height and cutting damage, but it had no effect on mortality, re-sprouting vigor, and nutrient balance within the stumps, at least in the first growing season. Re-sprouting vigor depended mainly on species.ConclusionWhile it may result in higher stump damage levels, mechanized cutting does not seem to have any effects on coppice regeneration and growth, at least in the first year. Previous studies indicate that effects recorded during the first growing season may be representative of longer-term trends. The experiment will be continued to obtain additional confirmation.

Industrial poplar plantations reach maturity in about 10–15 years, showing a wood productivity that is hardly achieved by other broadleaf species. Among the possible uses of this product, the energetic production is one of the most promising as it can offer additional revenues to plantation owners. However, the difficult handling and the large volumes occupied by crowns during storage decrease significantly the convenience of the recovery. Therefore, efficient and affordable storage methods need to be identified in order to make this product more manageable and profitable. The main goal of the research is to understand the dynamic of a long-term storage lasting 18 months and the effects of storage on fuel quality in both stem and crown of poplar chips. Storage performance were evaluated with respect to moisture content, dry matter losses, particle size distribution, bulk density, and fuel quality before and after storage. Contrary to the results obtained in Northern climates, this study revealed the poor storability of poplar chips, regardless the plant component (bole, branch, crown) considered, showing in the worse cases dry matter losses higher close to 50% and final moisture mass fraction increases to about 70%.

The study compared the silvicultural results of individual tree selection as performed by licensed foresters, loggers, and licensed agronomists. The experiment was conducted on two tree marking training sites installed by the Regional Forest administration for Lombardy in the northern Italian mountains. Each site consisted of a 1.2-acre (0.5-ha) forest plot where all trees had been identified with painted numbers. Sixty-four volunteers were extracted from a larger pool representing licensed foresters, loggers, and licensed agronomists. Each volunteer was provided with simple paper forms on which he or she would note the identification number of each tree selected for removal. All volunteers were asked to apply the same silvicultural prescription. Statistical analysis of the results indicated no differences between the different professional groups. Most participants reached the prescribed percent removals and consistently selected the right tree size for two different silvicultural treatments. On the other hand, differences between single individuals were quite substantial, possibly reflecting different practical experience with tree marking. Overall, the study suggests that the quality of tree selection is not determined by the group an individual belongs to. Therefore, one may consider delegating tree selection to a properly trained logger, especially if the silvicultural prescription is relatively straightforward.

Recently the species Cynara cardunculus L. has gained importance for its multiple uses including the production of bio-plastic and bio-energy. However, the obtaining of different product requires specific technology, especially at the beginning of the production chain for raw material optimization. In this regard, the harvesting in the field is a fundamental task that already determines the characteristics of the final product and the potential full exploitation of the crop. In this regard, the present study aimed at testing the performance of a combine equipped with three harvesting systems to harvest cardoon. The performances of the combine were assessed by studying the working times, while the work quality was evaluated quantifying the losses of both capitula, including the seeds, and the aboveground biomass.

An efficient and simple one-pot procedure for selective etherification of 2-aryl-ethylalcohols has been achieved through Amberlyst 15-catalyzed reaction in dimethyl carbonate (DMC). Moreover, the polymer catalyst could be recovered and reused with no effect on its activity. The reaction mechanism involves the formation of phenonium ion which has been demonstrated by a C-C bond forming reaction. Theoretical studies are in agreement with and thus explain experimental results. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Vegetable oils became a very popular bioliquid for renewable power and transport applications. At local level, the short chain production of vegetable oils is currently important in terms of sustainability and use of rural area. This present work investigates the development of vegetable oils production chain in the Tuscany territory, focusing also to valorisation of the co-products (i.e., oil cake). The work is based on the study of the cultivation of rapeseed and sunflower, and the creation of an extraction plant based on cold-screw pressing technology, in order to obtain a raw vegetable oil suitable as biofuel. The German DIN 51623 standard was adopted to investigate the quality of vegetable oils obtained from different oil crops. Vegetable oils quality was evaluated by comparing the oil produced by a bench press at lab scale, comparing the results in terms of process yields and lipid fraction recovered. Due to the high phosphorous content of rapeseed oil, out of the DIN limits, an experimental procedure to remove P content and restore the oxidation stability of the oils was performed. The results showed a substantial P reduction by adding 2 wt% of P-removing additive. The oil cake properties were evaluated in view of its potential use for bioenergy production, in particular in terms of metals content. [Received: December 5, 2015; Accepted: September 20, 2016]

Pruning residues from olive groves represent an important biomass source. Until now,the management of pruning residue has generally represented a disposal problem rather than anopportunity for additional revenue. The main problem is the lack of a well-organized pruningbiomass supply chain. In particular, harvesting is a key stage that influences the product quality,the type of logistics chain, and the economic sustainability of the pruning supply chain. The aim ofthe present paper was the evaluation of the machine performance of the Facma Comby TR200 towedshredder. The harvesting tests took place in Agios Konstantinos, Fthiotida, Central Greece. Twodifferent experimental fields were used for the evaluation of this harvesting system; these fieldswere characterized by different slopes to check the convenience of using such a towed shredder onboth hilly slopes and flat terrains. Analysis was conducted focusing on both the work productivityand costs. Moreover, an evaluation of the obtained hog fuel quality was performed. The FacmaComby TR200 showed good work performances on both flat (2.60 tdm·h−1) and hilly (2.74 tdm·h−1) land,even if a consistent influence of the pruning biomass yield on the work performances was reported.The biomass quality could be consistently improved by modifying the pick-up systems to avoid thecollection of inert materials (soil and rocks). In fact, the analysis showed a high ash content in thecomminuted material (4% dry basis). Finally, the economic aspects of this study’s results were inline with those reported in the literature. The applied harvesting system showed a cost equal to29.88 and 16.59 €·tfm−1 on flat and hilly land, respectively.

Eucalyptus trees cover about 20 million hectares globally and are used to produce pulp, paper and firewood for domestic uses. From an environmental perspective, these trees have fewer impacts than other crops. In Italy, plantations of eucalyptus can provide a large amount of biomass to satisfy part of the country&rsquo, s internal demand. However, eucalyptus cultivation is less profitable than cultivation of traditional crops due to the low market prices of wood. This study aims both to analyze the willingness of a sample of Italian consumers to pay for eucalyptus firewood and to investigate the main factors that may affect this willingness. Data are collected from a sample of 231 consumers using a web-based survey. The double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation model is then applied. The findings show that information, the energetic density of firewood, consumers&rsquo, interest in environment issues, and the age of respondents are aspects that are positively associated with respondents&rsquo, willingness to pay for eucalyptus firewood. Conversely, interest in both firewood species and packaging are factors that reduce consumer willingness to pay for eucalyptus firewood. Even though these results cannot be generalized to the whole Italian population, the findings may indicate new opportunities for eucalyptus, while growing demand for eucalyptus could offer an interesting opportunity for firms to enter the sector and develop marketing strategies targeted towards specific market niches.