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The illegal wildlife trade has direct relevance for zoo management, animal acquisition and disposition and it has no place in modern zoo management. Zoos must not only act within the law of the country in which it is based, but they should also follow the rules and intentions of international trade regulations and, where relevant, domestic laws of the animal’s country of origin. After its rediscovery in 2012, zoos in Asia and Europe started displaying Bornean earless monitor lizards (Lanthanotus borneensis), the ‘Holy Grail of Herpetology’. Earless monitor lizards have been legally protected in each of its three range countries for over four decades and, over this period, no specimen has ever been legally exported. However, the illicit trade in the species is thriving and individuals become more affordable. Using publicly available data, I present a timeline of how and from where a total of 16 zoos acquired their earless monitor lizards, including from private individuals and non-accredited zoos. Apart from one zoo in Japan (since 2012) and one zoo in the USA (since 2021), all non-range country zoos that currently display the species are based in Europe. Their absence prior to 2021 in US zoos (despite an increasing illegal trade) could be explained as the acquisition of earless monitor lizards would have been in violation of the Lacey Act (1900) that requires buyers to ensure that imported or purchased wildlife has not been taken in violation of any foreign law. While there is no evidence that any of the zoos, their directors or their staff have broken any laws – no-one in the zoo community has been convicted for illegally trading earless monitor lizards – with more zoos speaking out against the illegal wildlife trade, it is imperative that zoos behave in an exemplary manner and set high standards. At present, some zoos do not meet this standard.

SummarySince antiquity, the keeping of finches as pets has been common throughout the Mediterranean countries and it remains a widespread hobby to the present day. Since most finches are sourced from the wild this hobby can have implications for their conservation, especially for already imperilled species. We conducted a survey of 257 households in the city of Guelma, in the north-east of Algeria, and of 70 participants to a European Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis show contest in Algiers, to understand the owners’ motives for keeping cage birds and find solutions to mitigate any negative effects on the trade. Keeping and showing finches in Algeria is a male-dominated hobby, especially for the 30–40 year age bracket. Our surveys indicate that almost 60% of households had a cage bird, with the European Goldfinch being the most popular species. With a mean of 0.75 goldfinches per household we estimate that in Guelma alone some 17,000 are kept in captivity. Between 70% and 90% of the owners indicated that their birds were indeed wild-sourced, and over 85% of them were aware of the protected status of the European Goldfinch in Algeria. Our findings underline the need for strict enforcement of existing laws and better targeted awareness campaigns to influence the behaviour of owners in order to reduce the demand for wild specimens.

Increasingly, new species are being described without there being a name-bearing type specimen. In 2015, a new species of primate was described, the golden-crowned langur Presbytis johnaspinalli Nardelli, 2015 on the basis of five photographs that were posted on the Internet in 2009. After publication, the validity of the species was questioned as it was suggested that the animals were partially and selectively bleached ebony langurs Trachypithecus auratus (É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812). Since the whereabouts of the animals were unknown, it was difficult to see how this matter could be resolved and the current taxonomic status of P. johnaspinalli remains unclear. I present new information about the fate of the individual animals in the photographs and their species identification. In 2009, thirteen of the langurs on which Nardelli based his description were brought to a rescue centre where, after about three months, they regained their normal black colouration confirming the bleaching hypothesis. Eight of the langurs were released in a forest and two were monitored for two months in 2014. The description of their behaviour, photographs and analysis of their cytochrome b genes confirms them as ebony langurs. There is no evidence to support the notion that the golden-crowned langur represents intermediates between melanistic and erythristic ebony langurs, nor that it represents a new species. As such, Presbytis johnaspinalli Nardelli, 2015 is a junior synonym of Trachyptihecus auratus (É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812). This case underscores the importance of assembling a sufficiently varied amount of data prior to describing new species and studying the actual type specimens.

The illegal wildlife trade is considered one of the major threats to global biodiversity. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) have been highly valued by various cultures for use in religious and spiritual contexts, as a draft animal, and more recently, as a tourist attraction. Thus, the demand for captive elephants is high. Wild Asian elephants are taken from the wild, often illegally, to maintain these captive populations due to the unviability of captive breeding programs. For the first time, we documented the extent to which wild elephants are being illegally captured and traded in Sri Lanka between January 2008 and December 2018. We collected data from case records maintained by the Sri Lanka court system where the suspects of illegal elephant trade were prosecuted in addition to information gathered by archives and interviews with various stakeholders. We documented 55 cases where elephants were illegally traded. This is probably an underestimate due to the mortality rate of elephants during capture operations, and challenges in collecting data on this highly organized illicit trade. Nearly equal numbers of male and female elephants were traded and more than 50% of them were juveniles, aged ≤5 years. Significantly more elephants were found to be seized in 2014–2015 than in the other time periods combined. We found evidence of the illegal capture of wild elephants from wildlife protected areas and state forests. More importantly, we identified evidence of corruption of wildlife officers, involvement of politicians and other high-ranking personnel in the illegal wildlife trade, and lack of active enforcement of wildlife law as major challenges to overcome if the illegal capture and domestic trade of wild elephants in Sri Lanka are to be halted. Based on our study, we make a series of recommendations that should result in implementing policy to reduce the trafficking of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka and improve the conservation management of the species.

The shift of wildlife trade from brick-and-mortar markets to virtual online marketplaces is reported using the trade of birds of prey (raptors) in Thailand from 1968 to 2019 as a case study. We analyzed data obtained from physical market survey data for 2,782 individuals from 27 species, with 2,420 individuals reported in early surveys (1968-1988) and 362 individuals reported in later surveys (2003-2015) and online surveys (February 2017 to January 2019). We compared information on asking prices and what species were traded using two comparative approaches to analyze how species composition may have changed over time (physical markets and online platforms; pre-Internet and Internet era). In comparison with the five previous market surveys, we did not find a statistically significant difference between species and availability of species offered for sale when comparing physical bird markets and online markets. In all data sets, biological factors such as wingspan were significant factors in explaining price variation. We conclude that sustained monitoring is needed to make direct comparisons between the trade platforms. With a continued increase of wildlife trade on online platforms, we recommend increased regulation and enforcement of wildlife trade laws.

The global wildlife trade is considered one of the main threats to the conservation of a large number of imperilled species. African Grey parrots are one of the most heavily traded groups of birds,...

Background Research of many mammal species tends to focus on single habitats, reducing knowledge of ecological flexibility. The Javan lutung (Trachypithecus auratus) is considered a strict forest primate, and little is known about populations living in savannah. In 2017–2018, we investigated the density and distribution of Javan lutung in Baluran National Park, Indonesia. We conducted ad libitum follows and line transect distance sampling with habitat suitability analysis of Javan lutung. Results Estimated density was 14.91 individuals km− 2 (95% CI 7.91–28.08), and estimated population size was 3727 individuals (95% CI 1979 – 7019). Long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) habitat suitability was the main driver of lutung habitat suitability as the probability of lutung occurrence increased greatly with macaque habitat suitability. Distance to roads, and distance to secondary forest had a negative relationship with lutung occurrence. Lutung habitat suitability decreased with increasing elevation, however, Mt Baluran and the primary forest on Mt Baluran was under-sampled due to treacherous conditions. Follows of six focus groups revealed considerable use of savannah, with terrestrial travel. The follows also revealed polyspecific associations with long-tailed macaques through shared sleeping sites and inter-specific vocalisations. Conclusions Our study provides new knowledge on the general ecology of Javan lutung, such as use of savannah habitats, underlining our need to branch out in our study sites to understand the flexibility and adaptability of our study species. Another undocumented behaviour is the polyspecific association with long-tailed macaques. We encourage more research on this subject.

The switch from hunting wild meat for home consumption to supplying more lucrative city markets in Amazonia can adversely affect some game species. Despite this, information on the amounts of wild meat eaten in Amazonian cities is still limited. We estimated wild meat consumption rates in 5 cities in the State of Amazonas in Brazil through 1046 door-to-door household interviews conducted from 2004 to 2012. With these data, we modeled the relationship between wild meat use and a selection of socioeconomic indices. We then scaled up our model to determine the amounts of wild meat likely to be consumed annually in the 62 urban centers in central Amazonia. A total of 80.3% of all interviewees reported consuming wild meat during an average of 29.3 (CI 11.6) days per year. Most wild meat was reported as bought in local markets (80.1%) or hunted by a family member (14.9%). Twenty-one taxa were cited as consumed, mostly mammals (71.6%), followed by reptiles (23.2%) and then birds (5.2%). The declared frequency of wild meat consumption was positively correlated with the proportion of rural population as well as with the per capita gross domestic product of the municipality (administrative divisions) where the cities were seated. We estimated that as much as 10,691 t of wild meat might be consumed annually in the 62 urban centers within central Amazonia, the equivalent of 6.49 kg per person per year. In monetary terms, this amounts to US$21.72 per person per year or US$35.1 million overall, the latter figure is comparable to fish and timber production in the region. Given this magnitude of wild meat trade in central Amazonia, it is fundamental to integrate this activity into the formal economy and actively develop policies that allow the trade of more resilient taxa and restrict trade in species sensitive to hunting.Mercado y Consumo Urbano de Carne Silvestre en la Amazonia Central Resumen El cambio de la caza de animales silvestres para consumo del hogar a caza para surtir mercados urbanos más lucrativos en la Amazonia puede afectar negativamente a algunas especies de caza. A pesar de esto, la información sobre la cantidad de carne silvestre que se consume en las ciudades de la Amazonia todavía es limitada. Estimamos las tasas de consumo de carne silvestre en cinco ciudades del Estado de Amazonas, Brasil, por medio de 1046 entrevistas presenciales a hogares realizadas entre 2004 y 2012. Con estos datos modelamos la relación entre el uso de la carne silvestre y una selección de índices socioeconómicos. Después aumentamos nuestro modelo para determinar la cantidad de carne silvestre que tal vez se consume anualmente en los 62 centros urbanos de la Amazonia central. Un total de 80.3% de todos los entrevistados reportaron el consumo de carne silvestre durante un promedio de 29.3 (CI 11.6) días por año. La mayoría de la carne silvestre fue reportada como comprada en mercados locales (80.1%) o cazada por algún integrante de la familia (14.9%). Se citaron 21 taxones como parte del consumo, principalmente mamíferos (71.6%), seguidos por reptiles (23.2%) y aves (5.2%). La frecuencia declarada de consumo de carne silvestre estuvo correlacionada positivamente con la proporción de población rural, así como con el producto doméstico bruto per cápita de la municipalidad (divisiones administrativas) en donde se encuentran las ciudades. Estimamos que un máximo de 10,691 toneladas de carne silvestre podrían ser consumidas anualmente en los 62 centros urbanos de la Amazonia central, el equivalente a 6.49 kg/persona/año. En términos monetarios, esto equivale a US$21.72/persona/año o US$35.1 millones en general. Esta última cifra es comparable con la producción de madera y de peces en la región. Dada esta magnitud del mercado de carne silvestre en la Amazonia central, es fundamental la integración de esta actividad en la economía formal y el desarrollo activo de políticas que permitan el mercado de taxones más resilientes y que restrinjan el mercado para las especies sensibles a la caza.在亚马逊地区, 对野生动物的狩猎从供家庭食用到供应利润更高的城市市场的转变, 可能对一些狩猎物种产生负面影响。尽管如此, 关于亚马逊城市食用野生动物肉类的数量信息仍然很少。我们通过 2004-2012 年间的 1046 次上门访问, 估计了巴西亚马逊州五个城市的野生动物肉类食用量, 并利用这些数据分析了野生动物肉类利用与一些社会经济指数的关系。接下来, 我们利用这个模型模拟了亚马逊中部六十二个城市中心区每年的野生动物肉类食用量。结果显示, 总计 80.3% 的受访者报告每年平均 29.3 天 (CI为 11.6 天) 食用野生动物肉; 大部分肉类购自当地市场 (80.1%) 或由家庭成员狩猎获得 (14.9%) ; 食用的肉类来自二十一个类群, 主要是哺乳动物 (71.6%) 、爬行动物 (23.2%) 和鸟类 (5.2%) ; 野生动物肉类的食用频率与农村人口比例及其城市所在行政区的人均国内生产总值呈正相关。我们估计亚马逊中部地区六十二个城市中心区每年野生动物肉的食用量高达 10691 吨, 相当于每人每年食用 6.49 千克。按货币计算, 即每人每年食用 21.58 美元的野生动物肉, 或每年总计食用 3510 万美元的肉类, 后者相当于该地区采矿及木材生产总额。鉴于亚马逊中部地区野生动物肉类交易的规模之大, 应将这一活动纳入正式经济活动, 积极制定政策来支持开展那些较强恢复能力物种的交易, 而限制交易对狩猎敏感的物种。【翻译: 胡怡思; 审校: 聂永刚】.

Indonesia is a significant trader in marine molluscs and has a comprehensive legislative framework in place to protect and use molluscs sustainably. The recent inclusion of nautilus in Appendix II ...

The illegal wildlife trade is a major driver behind the global loss of wildlife and is pushing many species towards extinction. A large number of wild cat species are heavily traded: live animals a...

Wildlife trade is recognised as an impediment to conservation. Yet, long-term trade data are lacking for many species, precluding analysis of trends and trade dynamics. The Sunda Leopard Ca...

Apes continue to be trafficked to meet the demand for pets or zoos. Indonesia, the most diverse country in terms of ape species, has been implicated in the global trade in gibbons, orangutans and, to a lesser degree, chimpanzees. Recently trade has shifted to online platforms, a trend that may have been amplified by the Covid-19 pandemic and partial lockdowns. We assessed the availability of legally protected apes for sale on Facebook and Instagram over two 16-months periods (2017–2018 and 2020–2021). Despite Facebook and Instagram explicitly banning the sale of endangered animals, and Facebook not allowing the sale of live animals, we found 106 gibbons, 17 orangutans and four chimpanzees for sale on five Facebook pages and 19 Instagram accounts. All orangutans and chimpanzees and 70% of the gibbons were infants or juveniles. We did not record any obvious responses of vendors to the Covid-19 pandemic. Facebook and Instagram accounts were linked (similar names, cross-referencing each other and announcing new accounts on existing ones), names were altered (e.g., “petshop” to “pethsop”) and new vendors emerged for short periods. Facebook and Instagram’s policy of not allowing the sale of live and/or endangered wildlife on their platforms is not effectively implemented in Indonesia.

Forest structure, defined as the three-dimensional vertical and horizontal distribution of canopy vegetation, has a great influence on the distribution patterns and abundance of forest primates. The complexity of this structural canopy produces a diverse range of microhabitats and distinct ecological niches, allowing ecologically similar species to coexist. Degradation of forests through anthropogenic factors significantly alters forest structure, and arboreal species such as gibbons are particularly vulnerable to these changes because of their reliance on canopy for survival. We investigated how forest structural variables influenced the density of two sympatric gibbon species (siamangs, Symphalangus syndactylus and lar gibbons, Hylobates lar) in Sikundur, a historically disturbed tropical lowland forest in north Sumatra. We used auditory sampling to establish group density in 10 locations and assessed structural characteristics of forest within 4–6 vegetation plots in each location. Lar gibbon group densities were 0.53–3.10 groups/km2 and siamang group densities were lower, with 0.0–1.0 groups/km2. The densities of both species were positively influenced by median height of first bole and the percentage of canopy connectivity. Lar gibbon group density was positively related to large (diameter at breast height 30–100 cm), tall (20–25 m) trees with a large crown area (100–300 m2), while siamang group density showed no significant relationships with these variables. These findings show canopy connectivity and height to first bole are significant structural variables for the continued presence of both gibbon species although, ecologically similar species can be influenced by different levels of structural disturbance. This canopy structural variation between sympatric species existing in the same ecosystem allows for home range overlap, low interspecific competition, and coexistence.

There is an urgent need for a global transition to sustainable and wildlife-friendly farming systems that provide social and economic equity and protect ecosystem services on which agriculture depends. Java is home to 60% of Indonesia&rsquo, s population and harbors many endemic species, thus, managing agriculture alongside human well-being and biodiversity is vital. Within a community of ~400 coffee farmers in the province of West Java, we assessed the steps to develop a wildlife-friendly program until reaching certification between February 2019 and October 2020. We adopted an adaptive management approach that included developing common objectives through a process of stakeholder consultation and co-learning. We firstly investigated via interviews the expectations and the issues encountered by 25 farmers who converted to organic production in 2016. Their main expectations were an increase in income and an increase in coffee quality, while they had issues mainly in finding high quality fertilizers, reducing pests, and increasing productivity. We used this information to establish a problem-solving plan for the transition to community-wide wildlife-friendly practices. As part of the adaptive evaluation, we assessed the quality of coffee plantations before and after the implementation of coproduced actions. The quality of coffee significantly improved after our interventions to reduce the coffee berry borer, especially in the fields that started as inorganic and converted to organic. We uncovered additional issues to meet the standards for certification, including banning hunting and trapping activities and increasing coffee quality for international export. We describe the coproduced actions (agroforestry, conservation education, local law, organic alternatives) and phases of the program and discuss the potential barriers. We provide novel evidence of adaptive management framework successfully used to implement management actions and reach shared goals.

In Indonesia, the songbird trade is causing serious declines in many native species. Much of this trade is unregulated or illegal but nevertheless occurs openly in physical wildlife markets and online. Here, we report on the trade in a once common songbird, the Sunda laughingthrush (Garrulax palliatus), using compiled market data from 365 bird market surveys across a 30-year period. We found a total of 5,281 birds for sale, with the species encountered in roughly two-thirds of the visits. We observed a significant decrease in the number of Sunda laughingthrushes offered over time from ~ 50 birds/survey in the 1990s to ~ 20 birds/survey in the 2000s and < 10 birds/survey in the 2010s, as well as a significant increase in the market price of the species, suggesting declining populations. In line with the countrywide findings, we found a decrease in the number of the species in the bird markets of Medan, but we did not find a similar decrease in Jakarta, suggesting a complex pattern of availability and demand. Nevertheless, this study shows that continued trapping for trade, if left unchecked, poses a significant risk to the species. We conclude that a more proactive stance from the government, including increasing levels of protection and enforcement of existing regulations, community engagement and possibly targeted captive breeding may alleviate the pressure on remaining wild populations. Our study offers a model whereby analysis of wildlife trade over extended periods of time covering vast geographic regions may offer insights that are easily missed when working in a too focused manner on single markets over short periods of time.

Wildlife trade has been widely discussed as a likely origin of the COVID-19 pandemic. It remains unclear how the main actors in the wildlife trade chain responded to these discussions and to the campaigns advocating wildlife trade bans. We analyzed the content of ~20,000 posts on 41 Facebook groups devoted to wild pet trade and ran a breakpoint and a content analysis to assess when and how the COVID-19 pandemic was incorporated into the discourse within trade communities. Only 0.44% of advertisements mentioned COVID-19, mostly after WHO declared COVID-19 a pandemic. No traders discussed the role of trade in spreading diseases; instead, posts stimulated the trade in wild species during lockdown. COVID-19 potentially offers persuasive arguments for reducing wildlife trade and consumption. This effect was not demonstrated by on-the-ground actors involved in this market. Bans in wildlife trade will not be sufficient and additional strategies are clearly needed., Highlights • Only 0.44% of 20,615 online wildlife trade advertisements had any COVID-19-related content. • The number of posts mentioning COVID-19 raised after the announcement of it as a pandemic. • Advertisements mentioning COVID-19 often stimulated wildlife trade. • No traders or consumers discussed the role of wildlife trade in spreading diseases. • Campaigns for banning wildlife markets have not discouraged online wildlife trade.

A significant number of Southeast Asian mammal species described in the 19th and 20th century were subsequently synonymized and are now considered subspecies. Many are affected by rapid habitat loss which creates an urgent need to re-assess the conservation status based on species boundaries established with molecular data. However, such data are lacking and difficult to obtain for many populations and subspecies. We document via a literature survey and empirical study how shotgun sequencing of faecal DNA is a still underutilized but powerful tool for accelerating such evaluations. We obtain 11 mitochondrial genomes for three subspecies in the langur genus Presbytis through shotgun sequencing of faecal DNA (P. femoralis femoralis, P. f. percura, P. siamensis cf. cana). The genomes support the resurrection of all three subspecies to species based on multiple species delimitation algorithms (PTP, ABGD, Objective Clustering) applied to a dataset covering 40 species and 43 subspecies of Asian colobines. For two of the newly recognized species (P. femoralis, P. percura), the results lead to an immediate change in IUCN status to Critically Endangered due to small population sizes and fragmented habitats. We conclude that faecal DNA should be more widely used for clarifying species boundaries in endangered mammals.

Social media has become an increasingly popular platform to trade legal and illegal wildlife. Here, we evaluate the online trade of otters, a group of globally threatened taxa in Thailand, a country of high global social media use. During the 14-month period, we monitored five Facebook groups to establish a primary understanding of the scope and scale of the trade. We recorded 160 sales posts (337 individual otters) of two species, the Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinereus) (81%) and the smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) (19%). Newborn otter pups accounted for 53% of the offers, whereas young otters accounted for 35%. Prices averaged US$78, where the smooth-coated otter was offered at a significantly higher price than the Asian small-clawed otter. Juvenile otters were also significantly more expensive than newborns. Trade appears to be domestic; however, the potential for international trade cannot be overlooked. Although otters are protected domestically, we find that the trade is easily accessible and prevalent. The results reflect current inadequacies in enforcement and legislation in keeping pace with the rapidly shifting nature of the Internet in Thailand and throughout the global Internet community. A consistent collaborative effort from consumers, enforcement agencies, and operators is required to address this illicit trade. Keywords: Exotic pets, Facebook, Illegal wildlife trade, Otters, Social media

Species distribution models are a key component for understanding a species’ potential occurrence, specifically in vastly undersampled landscapes. The current species distribution data for the Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis are outdated, but suggest a patchy distribution in moist broadleaved forests in South and Southeast Asia. Therefore, in this study, we used a species distribution model to explore the potential climatic niche of this species and assess its distribution and potential barriers in 12 South and Southeast Asian countries. We combined primary and secondary species occurrence records from different countries. We applied Classification and Regression Tree (CART), TreeNet (boosting), RandomForest (bagging) and Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) machine-learning algorithms with elevation as well as 19 bioclimatic variables for the first ensemble predictions ever completed for this species. Our results suggested that the predicted distribution of the Assamese macaque is strongly associated with precipitation of warmest quarter (BIO18), temperature annual range (BIO7) and temperature seasonality (BIO4). Our prediction shows a continuous potential climatic niche of the species from east of the Kaligandaki River in Nepal to Lao People’s Democratic Republic. There are also potential niche patches in Bhutan, Southeast China, Thailand and Cambodia, while Pakistan and Afghanistan have no potential niche for the species. We believe that our workflow presents a new conservation-oriented open access research template to progress empirical primate conservation worldwide.

SUMMARYThe illegal wildlife trade is covert by nature, and thus is often challenging to study. Seizure data is traditionally the most common means to gain insight into the trade for many species. Online media-sourced seizure records were applied to study the illegal trade of Siamese rosewood (Dalbergia cochinchinensis), one of 33 timber species of hongmu (rosewood), which is logged to produce luxury products predominantly for Chinese markets. Despite recent international pressure to strengthen the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulations, illegal trade of Siamese rosewood is prevalent in its range states. This paper will explore seizure reports in Thai online media and analyse spatial, temporal and other factors that potentially explain the trade. Between January 2014 and April 2016, 835 independent seizures were reported in 37 of 76 provinces in Thailand. Seizures occurred mostly in the north-eastern and eastern provinces with higher numbers of seizures closer to the border. The number of seizure reports decreased over time, and the average number of logs seized per seizure was consistent over the 28-month study period. Inadequate domestic legislation is a key factor facilitating the trade. Improvements are needed to the legislation and enforcement ahead of implementing other regional timber-specific initiatives and regulations. In this specific context, CITES also appears to be unacknowledged and ineffective in hampering the Siamese rosewood trade. Importantly, we find that using media-sourced seizure data is highly apt in Thailand's context, considering Thailand's sensitive political state and the prevalence of trade in other non CITES-listed rosewood species. The approach demonstrated here is applicable to many other wildlife species.

Agroforestry systems have been recognised as a possible refuge for biodiversity especially when bordering intact landscapes. The intensification of crop management to increase yields is usually associated with a reduction of shade trees and heavy use of chemicals, typically correlated with a decrease in biodiversity. The relationship between intensity of crop management and biodiversity, however, is not clear-cut and is dependent on environmental and geographical differences. We assessed the influence of different shade cover, shade tree richness, richness of other crops, distance from the forest, and use of chemicals on the diversity, richness and abundance of butterflies, a bioindicator in coffee home gardens. We collected data in 42 coffee home gardens in West Java, Indonesia, via Pollard transects, totalling 15.1 km (July-August 2019 and July-August 2020). We found 54 species of butterflies in the gardens. Via Generalised Additive Mixed Models, we found that the use of chemicals negatively influenced the abundance (p = 0.001) and richness (p = 0.039) of butterflies, while shade tree richness positively influenced the abundance (p

Complex agroforestry systems can host similar biodiversity levels to adjacent continuous forests and can offer important ecosystem services for wildlife. Species inhabiting adjacent forests, as well as species that prefer agroforestry systems, can benefit from this habitat matrix. It is necessary, however, to understand the species-specific adaptability to such a complex matrix. Indonesia is a biodiversity hotspot and hosts many endemic species that are threatened with extinction. Its human population relies heavily on agriculture, meaning that finding a balance between crop productivity and biodiversity is key for the long-term sustainability of local communities and wildlife. We aim to determine the influence of the presence of shade trees and distance to the forest on the detection rates of wildlife in coffee home gardens. In West Java, Indonesia, we monitored 23 gardens between April 2018 and March 2021 via camera traps, totalling 3856 days of monitoring in shade-grown and 3338 days in sun-exposed gardens. We also collected data in the nearby montane rainforest, totalling 1183 days of monitoring. We used Generalized Additive Models to estimate the influence of shade cover and distance to the forest on the detection rates of wildlife. The Sunda leopard cat Prionailurus javanensis was found more frequently in shade-grown gardens and used both the forest and agroforest matrix. Wild boars Sus scrofa mostly occurred in gardens adjacent to the forest, while barred buttonquails Turnix suscitator were associated with gardens far (&gt, 1 km) from the forest. Several species (civets Viverricula indica and Paradoxus musangus javanicus, Horsfield’s treeshrew Tupaia javanica, Javan ferret badger Melogale orientalis, Javan mongoose Herpestes javanicus) were not influenced by shade cover and distance to the forest, suggesting they are well adapted to the agroforestry system. Still, species of high conservation importance, such as Javan leopard Panthera pardus melas, Sunda porcupine Hystrix javanica, and grizzled langur Presbytis comata, were present in the forest but not in the agroforest, suggesting that the replacement of the forest by the agroforestry matrix is still detrimental. Nevertheless, it is important to maintain the complexity of the agroforestry system and connectivity with the neighbouring continuous forest to favour the long-term sustainability of this environment and the conservation of endemic species.

Hunting of wildlife is one of the major threats to biodiversity. For effective conservation programmes in countries where hunting and shifting agriculture are the main sources of subsistence, forest management should aim to reduce hunting pressure and forest exploitation. The presence of researchers has been promoted as one of the main ways to mitigate anthropogenic pressures on wildlife populations. Our aim was to test whether local management and the establishment of a research station had a role in decreasing forest exploitation by local people living adjacent to a recently protected area in south-east Madagascar. We interviewed local people from nine villages at various distances from the recently established research station of Ampasy, in the northernmost portion of the Tsitongambarika Protected Area, to explore how people use the forest, with a particular focus on hunting. We also performed transect surveys to estimate snare and lemur encounter rates before local forest management began, at the establishment of the research station, and 1 year after. The impact of local communities on the forest seems to have decreased since the beginning of forest management, with a further decrease since the establishment of the research station. Participants from villages not involved in the local management were more reluctant to declare their illegal activities. We conclude that a combination of local management and related activities (e.g. installation of a research station) can assist in temporarily reducing forest exploitation by local communities; however, community needs and conservation plans should be integrated to maintain long-term benefits.

In 2007 CITES included the Critically Endangered European eel on its Appendix II, thereby regulation international trade. In 2010 the EU member states adopted a ‘zero-quota’ policy thereby banning all commercial international trade. Given the continued high demand for eel in East Asia shifts have occurred to source European eel from non-EU eel range countries. Using official export figures from two independent databases, I here quantify to what extend Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria are fulfilling this demand. The ban had little effect on the annual export volumes in live eel from Morocco (mean of 41.3 metric ton / year), Algeria (15.5 t) or Tunisia (56.2 t) or chilled/frozen eel from Algeria (11.7 t) and Tunisia (20.0 t) but this trade from Morocco increased significantly (from 27.4 to 237.2 t). Prior to the ban the trade in eel from North Africa was almost exclusively to European countries (live 93–98%) and very little to East Asia, whereas after the ban East Asia became the main importer (live 91–93%). The monetary value of the trade totalled US$126 million and did not increase over time, but the importance of the live eel trade increase from 76% prior to the ban to 93% after. It is unclear on what basis Morocco and Tunisia were able to decide what level of trade was not detrimental to the survival of European eel in the wild, and I argue for better monitoring to ensure that international trade is not an impediment to the conservation of European eel.

Conservation professionals recognize the need to evaluate education initiatives with a flexible approach that is culturally appropriate. Cultural-consensus theory (CCT) provides a framework for measuring the extent to which beliefs are communally held and has long been applied by social scientists. In a conservation-education context, we applied CCT and used free lists (i.e., a list of items on a topic stated in order of cultural importance) and domain analysis (analysis of how free lists go together within a cultural group) to evaluate a conservation education program in which we used a children's picture book to increase knowledge about and empathy for a critically endangered mammal, the Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus). We extracted free lists of keywords generated by students (n = 580 in 18 schools) from essays they wrote before and after the education program. In 2 classroom sessions conducted approximately 18 weeks apart, we asked students to write an essay about their knowledge of the target species and then presented a book and several activities about slow loris ecology. Prior to the second session, we asked students to write a second essay. We generated free lists from both essays, quantified salience of terms used, and conducted minimal residuals factor analysis to determine presence of cultural domains surrounding slow lorises in each session. Students increased their use of words accurately associated with slow loris ecology and conservation from 43% in initial essays to 76% in final essays. Domain coherence increased from 22% to 47% across schools. Fifteen factors contributed to the domain slow loris. Between the first and second essays, factors that showed the greatest change were feeding ecology and slow loris as a forest protector, which increased 7-fold, and the humancentric factor, which decreased 5-fold. As demonstrated by knowledge retention and creation of unique stories and conservation opinions, children achieved all six levels of Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains. Free from the constraints of questionnaires and surveys, CCT methods provide a promising avenue to evaluate conservation education programs.

The northern Myanmar region has been identified as a potential transit and source place for the illegal trade of pangolins and their scales. In this study, we surveyed the trade links between Kachin State (northern Myanmar) and China and Kachin and India based on interviews, market surveys and online seizure data. From our results we cannot extrapolate that there is a link between Myanmar and India. Based on the results from interviews (17 of 38), we found that around 140–168 pangolins/year are smuggled into China via three different routes from Kachin to China. Scales are the most traded parts of pangolins in this part of Myanmar. Based on the online sources, 30 seizures of pangolin and their products were made on the Kachin–China route during 2010–2016, with all seizures made on the Chinese side of the border. We thus, recommend an increase in law enforcement on the Myanmar side, with focused effort at identifying trade hubs and deterring wholesalers. We further suggest investigating possible trade links between Kachin and other source areas. We recommend, a reclassification of the pangolins’ protection status in China from a Class II to a Class I Key Protected Species, and the prohibition of the use of pangolins’ scales for Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Objectives Based on vocalization recordings of an unknown galago species, our main objectives were to compare morphology and call structure with known closely-related taxa and describe a new species of galago. Materials and methods We conducted field surveys in three forest habitats along the escarpment region in western Angola (Kumbira Forest, Bimbe Area, and Northern Scarp Forest), and examined galago specimens from museums worldwide. We digitized and analyzed calls using Avisoft SASLab Pro software. We also compared museum specimens from Angola with other Galago and Galagoides specimens, and conducted comparative analyses (ANOVA and between group principle component analysis) based on a set of twelve linear measurements of skulls and teeth. Results We describe the new species to which we give the name Angolan dwarf galago, Galagoides kumbirensis sp. nov. The new species has a loud and characteristic crescendo call, used by other Galagoides spp. (sensu stricto) in West Africa to attract companions and repel rivals. However, this call shows species-typical differences from its closest relatives. Galagoides kumbirensis sp. nov. is also distinguished by differences in the skull morphology, pelage color and facial markings, as well as a larger body size, similar to that of Galago moholi, which is not known to be sympatric. Conclusion This discovery points to the importance of Angolan forests as refuges for endemic biodiversity. These forests are under severe threat from overexploitation, and there is an urgent need to establish conservation measures and designate protected areas.

Grizzled langurs, Presbytis comata, a largely sexually monomorphic species, are reported to occur in populations where either the majority of groups comprise 1 adult male with 1 adult female, or where groups comprise 1 adult male with multiple females. As such, they may have a monandrous mating system. I investigated whether 1-male/1-female groups indeed form a significant part of the species' social system, and whether habitat variation (forest fragment size, distance to the forest edge, altitude) affects social organization. I found the species from sea level to 2,565 m above sea level in groups from 1 to 13 individuals. I recorded mostly 1-male/multifemale groups with offspring or, alternatively, all-male groups. Two out of 55 groups comprised 1-male/1-female groups with offspring. Group size was negatively correlated with altitude and forest fragment size, and positively correlated with increasing distance from the forest edge. Altitudinal variation in group sizes was driven mainly by fewer adult females being present in groups at higher elevations; the number of adult males (almost invariably 1), subadults, juveniles, and infants, as well as the infant/adult female ratio, showed little altitudinal variation. One-male/1-female groups have been recorded repeatedly over a 25-year period in a high-altitude population on Mt. Patuha, West Java, but even here, on average, three fifths of the groups comprise 1 adult male with multiple females. At high-altitude sites, P. comata may indeed have a monandrous mating system, but at lower elevations it seems similar to that of other Presbytis langurs.

Myanmar is home to Asiatic black bears and sun bears. We gained insight into illegal hunting and trade of these species in and out of Myanmar through conversations with 40 self-declared bear poachers. All respondents were males who typically killed or caught one to three bears a year, mostly by setting snares. There was a preference for Asiatic black bear. Perceptions were that bears were less abundant now than 5 years ago, but it was not more arduous to obtain one. Most poachers (75%) consumed less valuable parts and sold the remainder, whereas others trapped only to sell. Preferred tradable parts were gall bladder, meat, and paws. Chinese nationals or Burmese of Chinese descent were mentioned as playing key roles (ordering, buying, selling) in trade. Instead of focusing on poachers, we recommend that authorities focus on disrupting trade networks and markets. Cooperation with neighboring countries, especially China, is needed to stem the flow of bear parts.

Until the late 1970s spur-thighed tortoisesTestudo graeca, endemic to the Mediterranean region, were exported from range countries in large volumes for the pet trade.Testudo graecawas included on CITES Appendix II in 1975, and in 1978 Morocco introduced national protection, banning domestic and international trade. However, the species is still openly traded in Moroccan markets. In 2013-2014 we conducted 48 surveys in 20 Moroccan towns and cities and single surveys in two Spanish exclaves to assess trade levels, size-composition, turnover, and variation between cities. We recorded 3267T. graecain 107 shops in 12 cities. Of 989 tortoises measured, two-thirds measured

Time is considered a resource in limited supply, and temporal niche separation is one of the most common strategies that allow ecologically similar species to live in sympatry. Mechanisms of temporal niche separation are understudied especially in cryptic animals due to logistical problems in gathering adequate data. Using high-frequency accelerometers attached to radio-collars, we investigated whether the ecologically similar lemurs Avahi meridionalis and Lepilemur fleuretae in the lowland rainforest of Tsitongambarika, south-eastern Madagascar, show temporal niche separation. Accelerometers stored data with a frequency of 1 Hz for a total of 71 days on three individuals of A. meridionalis and three individuals of L. fleuretae. We extrapolated motor activity patterns via the unsupervised learning algorithm expectation maximisation and validated the results with systematic behavioural observations. Avahi meridionalis showed peaks of activity at twilights with low but consistent activity during the day, while L. fleuretae exhibited more activity in the central hours of the night. Both lemur species had their activity pattern entrained by photoperiodic variations. The pair-living A. meridionalis was found to be lunarphilic while the solitary-living L. fleuretae was lunarphobic. We suggest that these activity differences were advantageous to minimise feeding competition, as an anti-predator strategy, and/or for dietary-related benefits. These findings demonstrate a fine-tuned temporal partitioning in sympatric, ecologically similar lemur species and support the idea that an activity spread over the 24-h, defined here as cathemerality sensu lato, is more common than previously thought in lemurs. Significance statement: Ecologically similar species may exhibit temporal niche partitioning and separate their peaks of activity when co-occurring in an area. We show for the first time that the mainly nocturnal genus Avahi can exhibit high crepuscular activity with low but consistent bouts of activity (up to 44.6% of daily activity) during the day. We defined this activity as cathemerality sensu lato as opposed to the cathemerality sensu stricto observed in Eulemur sp. We suggest that this flexible activity may be advantageous for the species to minimise feeding competition and predatory pressure, and/or to provide dietary-related benefits. This finding in the secondary nocturnal genus Avahi supports the idea that activity patterns in lemurs are graded and traditional categorisations are inadequate.

Southeast (SE) Asia holds high regional biodiversity and endemism levels but is also one of the world's most threatened regions. Local, regional and global threats could have severe consequences for the future survival of many species and the provision of ecosystem services. In the face of myriad pressing environmental problems, we carried out a research prioritisation exercise involving 64 experts whose research relates to conservation biology and sustainability in SE Asia. Experts proposed the most pressing research questions which, if answered, would advance the goals of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in SE Asia. We received a total of 333 questions through three rounds of elicitation, ranked them (by votes) following a workshop and grouped them into themes. The top 100 questions depict SE Asia as a region where strong pressures on biodiversity interact in complex and poorly understood ways. They point to a lack of information about multiple facets of the environment, while exposing the many threats to biodiversity and human wellbeing. The themes that emerged indicate the need to evaluate specific drivers of biodiversity loss (wildlife harvesting, agricultural expansion, climate change, infrastructure development, pollution) and even to identify which species and habitats are most at risk. They also suggest the need to study the effectiveness of practice-based solutions (protected areas, ecological restoration), the human dimension (social interventions, organisational systems and processes and, the impacts of biodiversity loss and conservation interventions on people). Finally, they highlight gaps in fundamental knowledge of ecosystem function. These 100 questions should help prioritise and coordinate research, conservation, education and outreach activities and the distribution of scarce conservation resources in SE Asia. Accepted version The workshop was funded by a generous donation from Haiyi Holdings Pte Ltd. to the Department of Biological Sciences of the National University of Singapore.

The trade in wildlife and wildlife products is one of the leading causes of population decline for thousands of species. It is critical that researchers use all available theories and techniques at hand to tackle this conservation crisis. Here, we integrate current services marketing theory with our existing understanding of behaviour change in wildlife trade research and propose future areas of transdisciplinary research. We first used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic review and Meta Analysis methodology to perform a systematic literature review of 227 articles from 76 journals to explore the current understanding of value in wildlife trade literature. Our results showed over 90% of articles used the term value to describe monetary worth and no articles provided a definition or justification of this use. We then contribute to scientific discourse by presenting Service Dominant Logic from marketing theory as a novel lens through which to explore consumer behaviour and the concept of value in the wildlife trade. We outline future avenues of research that will improve the ability of conservation practitioners to create meaningful behaviour change and system transformation using a wholly novel conceptualisation that synthesises the two disciplines of marketing and conservation.

Analysing seizure data is an important part of understanding the scale of the global wildlife trade and is essential when attempting to detect trends in organised crime activities, success of enforcement efforts and species conservation status. Confusion over the Imperial and metric systems with regards to the units of measurement ton and tonne due to careless reporting or an impression that difference between the two is an issue of American vs British spelling has led to considerable mis-reporting and underestimating of the volumes of pangolins involved in the illegal international wildlife trade. Here we highlight this issue and call upon conservationists, media communications officers and journalists to be more careful and accurate when reporting on tons or tonnes of wildlife in trade.

Of the 10,272 currently recognized reptile species, the trade of fewer than 8% are regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the European Wildlife Trade Regulations (EWTR). However, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List has assessed 45% of the world's reptile species and determined that at least 1390 species are threatened by “biological resource use”. Of these, 355 species are intentionally targeted by collectors, including 194 non-CITES-listed species. Herein we review the global reptile pet trade, its impacts, and its contribution to the over-harvesting of species and populations, in light of current international law. Findings are based on an examination of relevant professional observations, online sources, and literature (e.g., applicable policies, taxonomy [reptile database], trade statistics [EUROSTAT], and conservation status [IUCN Red List]). Case studies are presented from the following countries and regions: Australia, Central America, China, Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), Germany, Europe, India, Indonesia (Kalimantan), Islamic Republic of Iran, Japan, Madagascar, Mexico, New Zealand, the Philippines, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Western Africa, and Western Asia. The European Union (EU) plays a major role in reptile trade. Between 2004 and 2014 (the period under study), the EU member states officially reported the import of 20,788,747 live reptiles. This review suggests that illegal trade activities involve species regulated under CITES, as well as species that are not CITES-regulated but nationally protected in their country of origin and often openly offered for sale in the EU. Further, these case studies demonstrate that regulations and enforcement in several countries are inadequate to prevent the overexploitation of species and to halt illegal trade activities.

The existence of substantial morphological variation has resulted in the description of numerous subspecies of the cosmopolitan barn owl, Tyto alba. However, preliminary studies have revealed a high degree of genetic variation between Old and New World barn owls, suggesting that the T. alba complex may consist of several species. We present a comprehensive study of its taxonomy and propose a spatiotemporal framework to explain the origin and patterns of dispersal and diversification within these cosmopolitan owls. We used a Bayesian relaxed molecular clock approach to assess the timing of diversification. To evaluate the biogeographical pattern, we considered dispersal in addition to temporal connectivity between areas. Finally, we used ecological niche modelling to evaluate their ecological niches. Our phylogenetic analyses suggest that barn owls of the Old and New World show a high degree of genetic divergence, and the barn owls of South and South-east Asia (Tyto alba stertens and Tyto alba javanica) cluster with the Australian barn owl Tyto delicatula. We propose to treat the T. alba complex as three species: T. alba (Africa, Europe), Tyto furcata (New World), and Tyto javanica (Australasia). The dating analyses indicate that the early divergence among the species of the T. alba complex took place in the Middle Miocene and we hypothesize that a common ancestor of the T. alba complex lived in Africa. A potential scenario suggests that T. alba dispersed to Europe and south-western Asia during the interglacial periods of the Miocene/Pliocene, and dispersed into the New World either via an eastern Asian route or a western north Atlantic one.

We report on the illegal trade in live pangolins, their meat, and their scales in the Special Development Zone of Mong La, Shan State, Myanmar, on the border with China, and present an analysis of the role of Myanmar in the trade of pangolins into China. Mong La caters exclusively for the Chinese market and is best described as a Chinese enclave in Myanmar. We surveyed the morning market, wildlife trophy shops and wild meat restaurants during four visits in 2006, 2009, 2013–2014, and 2015. We observed 42 bags of scales, 32 whole skins, 16 foetuses or pangolin parts in wine, and 27 whole pangolins for sale. Our observations suggest Mong La has emerged as a significant hub of the pangolin trade. The origin of the pangolins is unclear but it seems to comprise a mixture of pangolins from Myanmar and neighbouring countries, and potentially African countries. Myanmar, on the basis of its geographic position, size and weak government, has emerged as an important transit country for the smuggling of pangolins to China. Data from 29 seizures from Myanmar and 23 from neighbouring countries (Thailand, India, China) implicating Myanmar as a source of pangolins or as a transit point for pangolins sourced in other countries, in the period 2010–2014, illustrate the magnitude of this trade. Combined these seizures amount to 4339 kg of scales and 518 whole pangolins, with a retail value in Myanmar of US$3.09 million. Trade in pangolins, their parts of their derivatives is illegal in Myanmar and CITES II listing with a zero-quota preclude international trade in them. We urge the Myanmar government to liaise with regional authorities to curb the trade in pangolins and recommend that the Myanmar and Chinese CITES authorities in particular come together urgently as to resolve the illicit trade of pangolins and their parts across their borders.

The illegal trade in rhinoceros horn, driven largely by the demand from East and South-east Asia, is a major impediment to the conservation of rhinoceroses globally. We surveyed the town of Mong La, in eastern Myanmar on the border with China, for the presence of rhinoceros horn. No rhinoceros horn was observed in 2006 or 2009, and other African wildlife was rare or absent. During visits in 2014 and 2015 we observed two horns, presumed to be of the white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum, and one horn tip, small discs from the horn core, horn powder and horn bangles. Shops selling rhinoceros horn all specialized in high-end and high-value wildlife, mostly for decorative purposes, including whole elephant tusks, carved elephant ivory, carved hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius canines, and tiger Panthera tigris skins. Organized criminal syndicates are involved in the wildlife trade between Myanmar and Africa, possibly via China. Mong La's geographical position on the border with China, limited control by the central Myanmar Government, and the presence of the Chinese entertainment industry provide ideal conditions for a global wildlife trade hub catering for the Chinese market. Solutions require more intense collaboration between the Myanmar and Chinese authorities to curb the trade in African rhinoceros horn in this part of Asia.

The illegal wildlife trade is increasingly recognised as a major threat to biodiversity conservation, and one way of curbing it is to properly enforce existing legislation and where appropriate to prosecute to the full extent of the law. One of the taxa that suffers greatly from unregulated trade are the tortoises and freshwater turtles, with collection for trade currently being the most significant threat for most Asian species. Illegal trade in pig-nosed turtles from Indonesia to supply international demand for pets, and to a lesser degree for meat and use in traditional medicines, continues on a large scale. We examined 26 reported seizures over the period 2013 to 2020, of which 20 took place in Indonesia and the remaining five in other parts of Asia with the turtles being trafficked from Indonesia. In total, this amounted to the seizure of 52,374 pig-nosed turtles. Pig-nosed turtles are totally protected in Indonesia, and nine of the 26 cases we examined were successfully prosecuted though never to the full extent of the law. Trade in and trafficking of pig-nosed turtles is in violation of Indonesia’s Fisheries and Customs Acts, yet these legal instruments were not used for prosecutions. In addition to the illegal trade, the Indonesia CITES Management Authority reported the export of 5415 pig-nosed turtles, 95% of which were declared as wild-caught, in direct contravention of Indonesia’s own protected species legislation. We strongly recommend a strategy be developed and implemented to more effectively tackle this trade from point of collection through to point of sale, with improved use of all relevant pieces of national legislation to serve as a strong deterrent, and ultimately to protect this species from over-exploitation.

Understanding the repertoire of hunting techniques used by traditional peoples in tropical forests is crucial for recognizing the role of traditional knowledge in hunting activities, as well as assessing the impact of harvests on game species. We describe the hunting techniques used across Amazonia by Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples for hunting yellow-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis denticulatus), one of the most consumed species in the biome. We interviewed 178 local people in 25 communities living in seven study areas in the Peruvian and Brazilian Amazon. We used a Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) and Analysis of Similarity (ANOSIM) to compare the hunting techniques between ethnic groups and the ages of the interviewees. Four different techniques were reported: (1) trapping with bait (46%; n = 122); (2) hunting with dogs (35%; n = 92); (3) active searching (14 %; n = 37); and (4) visiting fruiting trees (5%; n = 14). Trapping with bait was alleged to be the most cost-effective technique by 67% of the interviewees. Among the baits used, 93% involved the use of wild species as rotten meat. Hunting with dogs was also frequently cited and involved eight different methods of training. The hunting techniques recorded were not significantly different among ethnic groups or generations. The consonance among the technique repertoire likely reflects a shared knowledge still in use across different cultural groups. There is a potential for applying the hunting techniques to large scale community-based monitoring and management programs, but the impact on additional species affected, such as species intentionally captured to be used as bait, should be considered. Local assessments and community-based management plans that incorporate traditional ecological knowledge are recommended to guarantee the maintenance of livelihoods and ensure the species' conservation in Amazonia.

Seizures of hundreds of jaguar heads and canines in Central and South America from 2014 to 2018 resulted in worldwide media coverage suggesting that wildlife traffickers are trading jaguar body parts as substitutes for tiger parts to satisfy the demand for traditional Asian medicine. We compiled a data set of1000 seized wild cats (jaguar [Panthera onca], puma [Puma concolor], and ocelot [Leopardus pardalis]) from 19 Central and South American countries and China. We ran generalized additive mixed models to detect trends in wild-cat seizures from 2012 to 2018 and assess the effects of socioeconomic factors of source countries and between those countries and China on the number of wild cats seized. Jaguar seizures increased over time, and most of the seized jaguar pieces were canines (1991 of 2117). Around 34% (32 of 93) of the jaguar-part seizure reports were linked with China, and these seizures contained 14-fold more individuals than those intended for domestic markets. Source countries with relatively high levels of corruption and Chinese private investment and low income per capita had 10-50 times more jaguar seizures than the remaining sampled countries. The number of Chinese residents in Central and South America was not significantly related to the number of jaguars seized. No socioeconomic factors influenced the seizures of puma and ocelots. Legal market chains may provide structure for the illegal chain; thus, the influx of illegal jaguar products is potentially a side effect of the economic partnership between Central and South American countries and China. Poverty and high levels of corruption in the source countries may motivate local people to engage in illegal activities and contribute to the growth of this trade. Supply-side interventions to curb this threat to Neotropical wild cats may include improved training for officials and promotion of governance and the value of protecting these animals to local people.Mercado Ilegal de Felinos Silvestres y su Conexión al Desarrollo Encabezado por China en América Central y América del Sur Resumen La incautación de cientos de cabezas y colmillos de jaguar en América Central y América del Sur entre 2014 y 2018 resultó en una cobertura mediática mundial que sugirió que los traficantes de fauna están comerciando con partes de jaguar como sustituto de las partes de tigre para satisfacer la demanda de la medicina tradicional asiática. Recopilamos un conjunto de datos de más de mil felinos silvestres incautados (jaguar [Panthera onca], puma [Puma concolor], ocelote [Leopardus pardalis]) en 19 países de América Central y América del Sur y en China. Corrimos modelos aditivos mixtos generalizados para detectar las tendencias en las incautaciones de felinos silvestres entre 2012 y 2018 y para evaluar los efectos de los factores socioeconómicos de los países de origen y entre esos países y China sobre el número de felinos silvestres incautados. La incautación de artículos de jaguar incrementó con el tiempo y la mayoría de ellos fueron colmillos (1991 de 2117). Alrededor del 34% (32 de 93) de los reportes de incautación estuvieron vinculados a China y estas incautaciones tenían 14 veces más individuos que las incautaciones de artículos dirigidos al mercado doméstico. Los países de origen con niveles relativamente altos de corrupción y con inversión privada proveniente de China y con un bajo ingreso per cápita tuvieron de 10 a 50 veces más incautaciones de artículos de jaguar que los demás países muestreados. El número de residentes chinos en América Central y en América del Sur no tuvo una relación significativa con el número de jaguares incautados. Ningún factor socioeconómico influyó sobre las incautaciones de pumas y ocelotes. Las cadenas de mercado legales pueden proporcionar una estructura para la cadena ilegal; por lo tanto, la afluencia de productos ilegales de jaguar es potencialmente un efecto colateral de la colaboración económica entre China y los países de América Central y América del Sur. La pobreza y los altos niveles de corrupción en los países de origen pueden motivar a los habitantes locales a participar en actividades ilegales y a contribuir al crecimiento de este mercado. Las intervenciones del lado del suministro para disminuir esta amenaza para los felinos silvestres neotropicales pueden incluir mejoras al entrenamiento para los oficiales y el fomento entre los locatarios de la gestión y el valor de proteger a estos animales.2014 至 2018 年间中南美洲缴获了数百个美洲豹头及犬齿, 引起了全球媒体的广泛关注。野生动物贩卖者可能正在试图将美洲豹作为虎的替代者, 以满足传统亚洲医药对后者器官的需求。我们从 19 个中南美洲国家及中国收集了超过 1000 起野生猫科动物缉获案件, 包含了美洲豹 (Panthera onca) 、美洲狮 (Puma concolor) 及虎猫 (Leopardus pardalis) 三个物种。通过广义可加混合模型, 我们揭示了2012至2018年上述国家野生猫科动物缉获频次的变化趋势, 并对来源国社会经济因素对此趋势的影响进行了评估。结果显示美洲豹的缉获数量呈上升态势, 其中大部分被缴获的器官为犬齿 (1991/2117) 。美洲豹器官的缉获报道中大约 34% (32/93) 与中国市场相关, 与其来源国市场相比, 涉及的个体数量超出 13 倍。在腐败严重、中国私人投资较多及人均收入较低的国家中, 美洲豹缉获案件数量超出其余国家 10 到 50 倍。中南美洲中国侨民的数量与美洲豹缉获数量之间无明显相关性, 同时也没有社会经济因素与美洲狮和虎猫的缉获数量直接相关。合法市场可以为非法贸易链条提供便利, 因此部分美洲豹制品的非法贸易可能是中南美洲国家与中国之间经贸往来的附带产物。部分国家的贫穷与腐败可能刺激当地民众参与非法贸易活动, 进而导致贸易量持续上升, 威胁新热带区野生猫科动物的生存。来源国可以通过对官员的进一步培训, 强化管理及提升当地民众的保护回报等方式加以控制和干预。.

SummaryThe Critically Endangered Black-winged Myna Acridotheres melanopterus is being pushed towards the brink of extinction in Indonesia due to continued demand for it as a cage bird and the lack of enforcement of national laws set in place to protect it. The trade in this species is largely to supply domestic demand, although an unknown level of international demand also persists. We conducted five surveys of three of Indonesia’s largest open bird markets (Pramuka, Barito and Jatinegara), all of which are located in the capital Jakarta, between July 2010 and July 2014. No Black-winged Mynas were observed in Jatinegara, singles or pairs were observed during every survey in Barito, whereas up to 14 birds at a time were present at Pramuka. The average number of birds observed per survey is about a quarter of what it was in the 1990s when, on average, some 30 Black-winged Mynas were present at Pramuka and Barito markets. Current asking prices in Jakarta are high, with unbartered quotes averaging USD 220 per bird. Our surveys of the markets in Jakarta illustrate an ongoing and open trade. Dealers blatantly ignore national legislation and are fearless of enforcement actions. Commercial captive breeding is unlikely to remove pressure from remaining wild populations of Black-winged Mynas. Efforts to end the illegal trade in this species and to allow wild populations to recover are urgently needed. We also recommend the immediate inclusion of Black-winged Mynas in Appendix III of CITES to allow for international support to Indonesia in clamping down on international trade of the species.

The uneven representation of frugivorous mammals and birds across tropical regions - high in the New World, low in Madagascar and intermediate in Africa and Asia - represents a long-standing enigma in ecology. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain these differences but the ultimate drivers remain unclear. Here, we tested the hypothesis that fruits in Madagascar contain insufficient nitrogen to meet primate metabolic requirements, thus constraining the evolution of frugivory. We performed a global analysis of nitrogen in fruits consumed by primates, as collated from 79 studies. Our results showed that average frugivory among lemur communities was lower compared to New World and Asian-African primate communities. Fruits in Madagascar contain lower average nitrogen than those in the New World and Old World. Nitrogen content in the overall diets of primate species did not differ significantly between major taxonomic radiations. There is no relationship between fruit protein and the degree of frugivory among primates either globally or within regions, with the exception of Madagascar. This suggests that low protein availability in fruits influences current lemur communities to select for protein from other sources, whereas in the New World and Old World other factors are more significant in shaping primate communities. Fil: Donati, Giuseppe. Oxford Brookes University; Reino Unido Fil: Santini, Luca. Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen; Países Bajos Fil: Eppley, Timothy M.. Oxford Brookes University; Reino Unido. Zoological Society Of San Diego; Estados Unidos. Universitat Hamburg; Alemania Fil: Arrigo-Nelson, Summer J.. University of Pennsylvania; Estados Unidos Fil: Balestri, Michela. Oxford Brookes University; Reino Unido Fil: Boinski, Sue. University of Florida; Estados Unidos Fil: Bollen, An. No especifica; Fil: Bridgeman, Leandra L.. Washington University in St. Louis; Estados Unidos Fil: Campera, Marco. Oxford Brookes University; Reino Unido Fil: Carrai, Valentina. Università degli Studi di Pisa; Italia Fil: Chalise, Mukesh K.. Tribhuvan University; Nepal Fil: Derby Lewis, Abigail. Field Museum Of Natural History; Estados Unidos Fil: Hohmann, Gottfried. Institut Max Planck for Evolutionary Anthropology; Alemania Fil: Kinnaird, Margaret F.. Mpala Research Centre; Kenia Fil: Koenig, Andreas. Stony Brook University; Estados Unidos Fil: Kowalewski, Miguel Martin. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Parque Centenario. Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ; Argentina Fil: Lahann, Petra. Universitat Hamburg; Alemania Fil: McLennan, Matthew R.. Oxford Brookes University; Reino Unido Fil: Nekaris, Anna K. I.. Oxford Brookes University; Reino Unido Fil: Nijman, Vincent. Oxford Brookes University; Reino Unido Fil: Norscia, Ivan. Università degli Studi di Pisa; Italia Fil: Ostner, Julia. German Primate Center; Alemania Fil: Polowinsky, Sandra Y.. Bristol Zoological Society Ltd; Reino Unido Fil: Schülke, Oliver. German Primate Center; Alemania Fil: Schwitzer, Christoph. Bristol Zoological Society Ltd; Reino Unido Fil: Stevenson, Pablo R.. Universidad de Los Andes; Colombia Fil: Talebi, Mauricio G.. Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Tan, Chia. San Diego Zoo Institute For Conservation Research; Estados Unidos Fil: Tomaschewski, Irene. Universitat Hamburg; Alemania Fil: Vogel, Erin R.. Rutgers University; Estados Unidos Fil: Wright, Patricia C.. Stony Brook University; Estados Unidos Fil: Ganzhorn, Jörg U.. Universitat Hamburg; Alemania

© 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Objectives: Synthesize information on sleep patterns, sleep site use, and daytime predation at sleep sites in lorisiforms of Asia and Africa (10 genera, 36 species), and infer patterns of evolution of sleep site selection. Materials and methods: We conducted fieldwork in 12 African and six Asian countries, collecting data on sleep sites, timing of sleep and predation during daytime. We obtained additional information from literature and through correspondence. Using a phylogenetic approach, we established ancestral states of sleep site selection in lorisiforms and traced their evolution. Results: The ancestral lorisiform was a fur-clinger and used dense tangles and branches/forks as sleep sites. Use of tree holes and nests as sleep sites emerged ∼22 Mya (range 17–26 Mya) in Africa, and use of bamboo emerged ∼11 (7–14) Mya in Asia and later in Africa. Fur clinging and some sleep sites (e.g., tree holes, nests, but not bamboo or dense tangles) show strong phylogenetic signal. Nests are used by Galagoides, Paragalago, Galago and Otolemur; tree holes by Galago, Paragalago, Sciurocheirus and Perodicticus; tangles by Nycticebus, Loris, Galagoides, Galago, Euoticus, Otolemur, Perodicticus and Arctocebus; all but Sciurocheirus and Otolemur additionally sleep on branches/forks. Daytime predation may affect sleep site selection and sleep patterns in some species of Nycticebus, Galago, Galagoides, Otolemur and Perodicticus. Most lorisiforms enter their sleep sites around sunrise and leave around sunset; several are active during twilight or, briefly, during daytime. Conclusion: Variations in sleep behavior, sleep patterns and vulnerability to daytime predation provide a window into the variation that was present in sleep in early primates. Overall, lorisiforms use the daytime for sleeping and no species can be classified as cathemeral or polycyclic.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Wild animals are widely used in traditional Asian medicine but information from Myanmar is lacking. We show that a wide range of animals are used at a pilgrimage site, mostly for their rendered fats and oils to be used in mixed concoctions. The majority of species were sold to be used to treat aching joints, muscle ache and skin diseases. Aim of the study To assess wildlife for sale for medicinal purposes, and document their medicinal use at Kyaiktiyo, a pilgrimage site at a 1100 m tall mountain, with many of the pilgrims climbing to the top. In addition we address legal issues relating to the production and sale of traditional medicine that contain legally protected animals. Material and methods Four visits were made to Kyaiktiyo, Myanmar, between 2000 and 2017 to quantify animal parts on display and through discussions with vendors to obtain information on medicinal use of these parts. Results Twenty-three species, mostly mammals, were recorded to be used for traditional medicine. The most common were Chinese serow Capricornis milneedwardsii, Asian elephant Elephas maximus, and Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus. Over 600 bodies or body parts were present. Combined, these parts purportedly provided cures or relief for at least 15 ailments or diseases. The most commonly mentioned treatment was that of using rendered animal fats/oils externally to relieve/cure aching joints or muscles. This treatment allegedly provides instant relief to pilgrims after an arduous climb up the mountain. Purported cures for various skin diseases was the next common use for the animal species on offer. Ten of the species observed for sale at Kyaiktiyo are listed as globally threatened, and 15 are protected and cannot be legally traded. Ambiguities in Myanmar's legislation mean that protected animals or their body parts cannot be traded, however traditional medicines can be made out of them provided rules relating to the manufacturing of traditional medicines are adhered to. Conclusion This study indicated that animals and their parts continue to be openly offered for sale at Kyaiktiyo to treat various illnesses. Despite these products potential medical, traditional or cultural importance, solutions have to been found on how to ensure that, in line with Myanmar's laws, use of traditional local medicine does not impede the conservation of imperilled species.

The international trade in night monkeys (Aotus spp.), found throughout Central and South America, has been regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1975. We present a quantitative analysis of this trade from all 9 range countries, over 4 decades, and compare domestic legislation to CITES regulations. Night monkeys were exported from 8 of the 9 habitat countries, totalling 5,968 live individuals and 7,098 specimens, with trade of live individuals declining over time. In terms of species, the most commonly traded was Aotus nancymaae (present in Brazil, Colombia, Peru) followed by A. vociferans (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru) and A. zonalis (Colombia, Panama). There was no significant correlation between levels of trade and species' geographic range size or the number of countries in which a species occurs. Five countries have legislation that meets CITES requirements for implementation, whereas the other 4 countries' legislation showed deficiencies. Research conducted in Colombia, Peru, and Brazil suggests significant cross-border trade not captured in official international trade registers. Although international trade has diminished, current trends suggest that populations of rarer species may be under unsustainable pressure. Further research is needed to quantify real trade numbers occurring between habitat countries.

Reptiles are traded globally for medicinal purposes. Historic qualitative accounts of reptiles used as medicine in Morocco are numerous, but contemporary quantitative data are rare. In 2013- 2014, we surveyed 49 wildlife markets in 20 towns throughout Morocco, plus the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. We recorded 1,586 specimens of at least nine species for sale in 14 of the Moroccan markets with a combined value of about US $100,000. The most prominent markets were those in Marrakesh, Meknes, Casablanca, and Fez, with the former two cites trading equal quantities of dried and live specimens and the latter two trading mainly dried specimens. Common species were the Mediterranean chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) with 720 specimens (506 dried, 214 alive) and the Bell’s Dabb lizard (Uromastyx acanthinura) with 428 specimens (247 dried, 181 alive), both traded in 10 markets, and spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca; 57 carapaces), for sale in eight cities. Over 200 African rock python (Python sebae) skins were identified and may have been illicitly imported from other parts of Africa. The turnover of Mediterranean chameleon and Bell’s Dabb lizard specimens after four weeks as measured by repeat surveys was 66% for both species, resulting in an estimated annual turnover of 1,520 chameleons (range 921–2,303) and 775 lizards (range 364–1,174). Despite legal protection and regulations locally within Morocco and internationally through CITES, reptiles are commonly and openly traded for medicinal purposes throughout Morocco. However, traders are not forthcoming in conveying the legal status of these species and restrictions on trade to potential buyers. Increased enforcement of existing wildlife protection legislation is needed to prevent this exploitation from the illegal wildlife trade that could negatively impacts imperiled species.

Raptors are confirmed predators of Asian slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.), the only primates with a toxic bite. A possible function of this venom is to protect against predators. Slow lorises release volatile chemicals when threatened, thus potentially communicating their venomous status towards predators. Crested Serpent-eagles (Spilornis cheela) and Changeable Hawk-eagles (Nisaetus cirrhatus) are known to prey on venomous snakes and small mammals and are potential predators of slow lorises. We tested the anti-predator potential of slow loris venom by presenting pieces of chicken combined with swabs of Greater Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang) venom to 10 Changeable Hawk-eagles and 5 Crested Serpent-eagles. The eagles showed few behavioural responses in reaction to slow loris venom, examining swabs with venom or control scents equally. Both eagle species did show higher rates of face-rubbing behaviour following consumption of foods paired with venom compared with control scents. Our data suggest that slow loris venom does not function to repel avian predators, but may have an anti-predator defence function. While the eagles are not repelled by the smell of slow lorises, contact with their venom causes discomfort, potentially limiting the palatability of slow lorises to eagles.